{"id":209,"date":"2023-10-30T16:37:15","date_gmt":"2023-10-30T20:37:15","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/sites.nd.edu\/beyond-politics\/?p=209"},"modified":"2024-11-14T19:59:47","modified_gmt":"2024-11-15T00:59:47","slug":"strengthening-governance-for-sustainable-space-exploration","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/sites.nd.edu\/beyond-politics\/2023\/10\/30\/strengthening-governance-for-sustainable-space-exploration\/","title":{"rendered":"Strengthening Governance for Sustainable Space Exploration | By Anne Rehill"},"content":{"rendered":"<div class=\"wp-block-post-date\"><time datetime=\"2023-10-30T16:37:15-04:00\">October 30, 2023<\/time><\/div>\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity is-style-default\" \/>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><em>Cover Image via <a href=\"https:\/\/images-assets.nasa.gov\/image\/iss070e014216\/iss070e014216~large.jpg\" data-type=\"link\" data-id=\"https:\/\/images-assets.nasa.gov\/image\/iss070e014216\/iss070e014216~large.jpg\">NASA<\/a><\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The idea of a \u201cglobal commons\u201d is a zone that exists outside the jurisdiction of any nation but upon which all nations depend for finite, non-excludable resources.<sup data-fn=\"bbc7c74f-c897-41ca-bf6c-d5a8e22f2c38\" class=\"fn\"><a href=\"#bbc7c74f-c897-41ca-bf6c-d5a8e22f2c38\" id=\"bbc7c74f-c897-41ca-bf6c-d5a8e22f2c38-link\">1<\/a><\/sup> The governance framework of treaties and agreements for these commons, such as the Antarctic Treaty of 1959 and the Convention on the Law of the Sea, including the High Seas, in 1982, was established in the wake of World War II to ensure that these zones should only be used for peaceful non-military purposes and all may enter, use, and navigate through them.<sup data-fn=\"556d10cc-7473-4598-97fa-1897df067872\" class=\"fn\"><a href=\"#556d10cc-7473-4598-97fa-1897df067872\" id=\"556d10cc-7473-4598-97fa-1897df067872-link\">2<\/a><\/sup> By the time of the Space Race in the 1960s, the Antarctic Treaty served as a major inspiration for the development of space law, establishing much of the same rules for the use of outer space as a commons in the Outer Space Treaty (OST) of 1967, the Registration Convention of 1976, and the Moon Treaty of 1979. Thus, space law sought to establish a \u201cprovince of all mankind\u201d premised on similar principles: that no state can claim sovereignty over the moon, that no nuclear weapons or weapons of mass destruction or military activities may take place on the moon, and that any activities must prevent the \u201charmful contamination\u201d of space or Earth.<sup data-fn=\"a2d42746-5407-46ac-ba91-8d4ab51e65bf\" class=\"fn\"><a href=\"#a2d42746-5407-46ac-ba91-8d4ab51e65bf\" id=\"a2d42746-5407-46ac-ba91-8d4ab51e65bf-link\">3<\/a><\/sup> Because of our positive \u201ccommon heritage,\u201d and the potential for negative externalities to affect all people, it is important to make sure governance of commons is responsible and sustainable.<sup data-fn=\"bdd95650-ee04-4d20-9427-64ea044182bd\" class=\"fn\"><a href=\"#bdd95650-ee04-4d20-9427-64ea044182bd\" id=\"bdd95650-ee04-4d20-9427-64ea044182bd-link\">4<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">When the Space Race began, it was led by governmental agencies, such as NASA; however, recent shifts to the privatization of the aerospace sector have challenged this status quo, leading to concerns over the legality of increasing commercialization and militarization of space. Scientific technology has also changed drastically: launch vehicles and satellites are more powerful and numerous, probes and rovers have reached interstellar space and Mars, and information can be transmitted at much higher speeds and size capacities. For space to remain a peaceful global commons in the face of these more advanced capabilities and increased number of actors and motives, the new challenges must be addressed by intergovernmental organizations and incorporated into a more comprehensive body of binding space law.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"aligncenter size-full is-resized\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1920\" height=\"1900\" src=\"https:\/\/sites.nd.edu\/beyond-politics\/files\/2023\/10\/lunar-flag.jpeg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-268\" style=\"aspect-ratio:1.7777777777777777;object-fit:cover;width:820px;height:auto\" srcset=\"https:\/\/sites.nd.edu\/beyond-politics\/files\/2023\/10\/lunar-flag.jpeg 1920w, https:\/\/sites.nd.edu\/beyond-politics\/files\/2023\/10\/lunar-flag-300x297.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/sites.nd.edu\/beyond-politics\/files\/2023\/10\/lunar-flag-1024x1013.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/sites.nd.edu\/beyond-politics\/files\/2023\/10\/lunar-flag-768x760.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/sites.nd.edu\/beyond-politics\/files\/2023\/10\/lunar-flag-1536x1520.jpeg 1536w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1920px) 100vw, 1920px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">The raising of the American flag upon the first lunar landing could have been interpreted as a violation of the Outer Space Treaty; however, the Congress asserted that it was a symbolic gesture of national pride in achievement and was not to be construed as a declaration of national appropriation by claim of sovereignty. | Image via <a href=\"http:\/\/images-assets.nasa.gov\/image\/as11-40-5874\/as11-40-5874~orig.jpg\" data-type=\"link\" data-id=\"images-assets.nasa.gov\/image\/as11-40-5874\/as11-40-5874~orig.jpg\">NASA<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Commercialization<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The stipulation that no state can own any part of space in Article II of the OST was, up until recently, interpreted as meaning that no state could \u201cown\u201d space materials. While space resources have been collected for many years for scientific purposes, such as in the recent OSIRIS-Rex mission, space resources such as rare earth metals present in asteroids have created interest in commercial mining for a \u201clunar marketplace.\u201d<sup data-fn=\"789e8934-1b96-4297-8789-f59d41fd8b34\" class=\"fn\"><a href=\"#789e8934-1b96-4297-8789-f59d41fd8b34\" id=\"789e8934-1b96-4297-8789-f59d41fd8b34-link\">5<\/a><\/sup> With these possibilities in sight, legislators from many countries have begun to think of space as a region ripe for exploitation by all who can, rather than a region that no state or actor should exploit. Only eighteen states have ratified the Moon Treaty, which sought to codify procedures for orderly mining, and none of these states are major spacefaring nations with independently owned launch vehicles.<sup data-fn=\"77691446-8387-474f-a17a-db06aaca8c71\" class=\"fn\"><a href=\"#77691446-8387-474f-a17a-db06aaca8c71\" id=\"77691446-8387-474f-a17a-db06aaca8c71-link\">6<\/a><\/sup> The states who did not ratify it, including the \u201cBig Three\u201d major spacefaring nations of the United States, Russia, and China, therefore implicitly claim that any non-military, including commercial, activity on the moon is legal as they never agreed otherwise.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Trump Administration\u2019s statement that \u201cthe United States does not view [space] as a global commons\u201d further undermines the concept of shared responsibility and the need to cooperate in our shared orbits.<sup data-fn=\"b3bade3e-4afc-4f08-8aa2-1e0f3179ece8\" class=\"fn\"><a href=\"#b3bade3e-4afc-4f08-8aa2-1e0f3179ece8\" id=\"b3bade3e-4afc-4f08-8aa2-1e0f3179ece8-link\">7<\/a><\/sup> NASA&#8217;s support for selling space resources in the Artemis Accords aligns with policies like Trump&#8217;s 2020 executive order \u201cEncouraging International Support for the Recovery and Use of Space Resources\u201d and the Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act. These policies declare that the U.S. may mine space resources as they deny that \u201cthe extraction of space resources [\u2026] inherently constitute national appropriation under Article II of the Outer Space Treaty.\u201d<sup data-fn=\"60811c56-c646-4e0f-8401-e5a4ba864567\" class=\"fn\"><a href=\"#60811c56-c646-4e0f-8401-e5a4ba864567\" id=\"60811c56-c646-4e0f-8401-e5a4ba864567-link\">8<\/a><\/sup> Saudi Arabia even reversed its ratification of the Moon Treaty in 2023 to join the Artemis Accords as they sought to get on board with space mining. By challenging the interpretation of the OST national appropriation clause in favor of new non-binding expectations, spacefaring parties are taking advantage of ambiguity to benefit while they have an access advantage over most other nations. These policies may prove to be unsustainable as there are no bounds to the exploration, which could lead to a \u201ctragedy of the commons,\u201d in which a communal resource loses its value because it was overexploited in the absence of proper regulation. However, the fact that most states on Earth cannot easily go to space makes it difficult for smaller or less affluent states to challenge those who do not follow the rules.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Militarization<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The core principle of using space for peaceful purposes in Article IV of the OST is also being tested as space increasingly becomes part of states&#8217; military strategies. Though the OST prohibits the establishment of military bases, installations, and fortifications, \u201cspace forces\u201d have begun to increase, creating a new security dilemma.<sup data-fn=\"ff5e5af1-f709-4160-a5b9-953fb386a39d\" class=\"fn\"><a href=\"#ff5e5af1-f709-4160-a5b9-953fb386a39d\" id=\"ff5e5af1-f709-4160-a5b9-953fb386a39d-link\">9<\/a><\/sup> The United States\u2019 creation of a space force, backed by President Biden, has triggered Russia, France, and other states to build their space forces to increase their security in response to the perceived threat of the American one. These military forces constitute military activity in space, directly violating the Outer Space Treaty, and further demonstrating unconcern for international space law by major world players.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Additionally, the increasing capabilities of low-orbit satellites to provide information and internet connections can be appropriated for military uses. Although the use of satellites is not explicitly militant, they can be used to track where enemy troops are located, plan missions, and intercept communications. Recently, SpaceX\u2019s Starlink satellites have played a prominent role in the War in Ukraine, providing internet and access to communication networks to the Ukrainian military after their systems were destroyed in the fighting.<sup data-fn=\"2187165b-c033-4f58-a73a-fa2d0b923fd4\" class=\"fn\"><a href=\"#2187165b-c033-4f58-a73a-fa2d0b923fd4\" id=\"2187165b-c033-4f58-a73a-fa2d0b923fd4-link\">10<\/a><\/sup> The Starlink satellites were intended for commercial rather than military purposes, aiming to provide high-speed internet connections worldwide. Yet, the Ukrainian military has used Starlink\u2019s satellites to coordinate drone strikes, prompting Musk to shut off access to the Starlink networks. Musk stated: \u201cIf I had agreed to their request, then SpaceX would be explicitly complicit in a major act of war and conflict escalation,\u201d which he objected to participating in.<sup data-fn=\"0eb420a4-7ee1-45b7-a9ef-adbdff60ce34\" class=\"fn\"><a href=\"#0eb420a4-7ee1-45b7-a9ef-adbdff60ce34\" id=\"0eb420a4-7ee1-45b7-a9ef-adbdff60ce34-link\">11<\/a><\/sup> As space becomes an increasingly private sphere, as opposed to the government-led efforts of the 1960s, the role of individual actors and their obligations towards governments, international peace, and social responsibility have not been clearly defined.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Conclusions<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The governance of outer space\u2013-the existence of which was never necessary before space travel became possible in the 1960s-\u2013presents a complex and evolving challenge for the international community. The existing political and legal frameworks, rooted in the concept of space as a global commons, are under strain as states and private actors increasingly assert their rights to exploit space resources and engage in militarization. This creates tensions regarding what obligations different groups have in maintaining international peace and social responsibility, as well as what rights they are entitled to regarding space resources or even territory. Further ethical considerations include the inaccessibility of the sector to all but the ultra-wealthy, which violates Article I of the OST\u2019s call for space to benefit all states, \u201cirrespective of their degree of economic or scientific development,\u201d not just the states with spacefaring capabilities enabled by material resources.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">International cooperation and clear regulations are therefore essential to balance state, private sector, and global interests in space. Crucial components for new space laws must include provisions on sustainability to avoid pollution or corruption of space resources, fair divisions of space so that all nations can benefit, clearly defined rules on how private companies can participate in space, regulations for space commerce, and restrictions on the capabilities of space forces. Thus, new legislation reinforcing the OST while accommodating the changing political, economic, and military landscape of space will ensure the equitable and sustainable exploration of the &#8220;final frontier&#8221; in years to come.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Notes<\/h2>\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-footnotes\"><li id=\"bbc7c74f-c897-41ca-bf6c-d5a8e22f2c38\">Benjamin Silverstein and Ankit Panda, \u201cSpace Is a Great Commons. It\u2019s Time to Treat It as Such,\u201d The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, March 9, 2021, <a href=\"https:\/\/carnegieendowment.org\/2021\/03\/09\/space-is-great- commons.-it-s-time-to-treat-it-as-such-pub-84018\">https:\/\/carnegieendowment.org\/2021\/03\/09\/space-is-great-<br>commons.-it-s-time-to-treat-it-as-such-pub-84018<\/a>. <a href=\"#bbc7c74f-c897-41ca-bf6c-d5a8e22f2c38-link\" aria-label=\"Jump to footnote reference 1\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/li><li id=\"556d10cc-7473-4598-97fa-1897df067872\">\u201cConvention on the Law of the Sea,\u201d opened for signature December 10, 1982, United Nations Treaty Series 1833, No. 31363: art. 88-90, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.un.org\/depts\/los\/convention_agreements\/texts\/unclos\/unclos_e.pdf\">https:\/\/www.un.org\/depts\/los\/convention_agreements\/texts\/unclos\/unclos_e.pdf<\/a>; \u201cThe<br>Antarctic Treaty,\u201d opened for signature December 1, 1959, United Nations Treaty Series 402, No. 5778: Art. 1-3,<br><a href=\"https:\/\/documents.ats.aq\/keydocs\/vol_1\/vol1_2_AT_Antarctic_Treaty_e.pdf\">https:\/\/documents.ats.aq\/keydocs\/vol_1\/vol1_2_AT_Antarctic_Treaty_e.pdf<\/a>. <a href=\"#556d10cc-7473-4598-97fa-1897df067872-link\" aria-label=\"Jump to footnote reference 2\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/li><li id=\"a2d42746-5407-46ac-ba91-8d4ab51e65bf\">\u201cTreaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies,\u201d opened for signature December 18, 1979, United Nations Treaty Series 610, No. 8843: Art. 1, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.unoosa.org\/pdf\/gares\/ARES_21_2222E.pdf\">https:\/\/www.unoosa.org\/pdf\/gares\/ARES_21_2222E.pdf<\/a>. <a href=\"#a2d42746-5407-46ac-ba91-8d4ab51e65bf-link\" aria-label=\"Jump to footnote reference 3\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/li><li id=\"bdd95650-ee04-4d20-9427-64ea044182bd\">\u201cAgreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies,\u201d opened for signature July 11, 1984, United Nations Treaty Series 1363, no. 23002: Art. 11, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.unoosa.org\/oosa\/en\/ourwork\/spacelaw\/treaties\/moon-agreement.html\">https:\/\/www.unoosa.org\/oosa\/en\/ourwork\/spacelaw\/treaties\/moon-agreement.html<\/a>. <a href=\"#bdd95650-ee04-4d20-9427-64ea044182bd-link\" aria-label=\"Jump to footnote reference 4\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/li><li id=\"789e8934-1b96-4297-8789-f59d41fd8b34\">Loren Grush, \u201cNASA wants to buy Moon rocks from private companies,\u201d The Verge, September 10, 2020, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.theverge.com\/2020\/9\/10\/21429850\/nasa-moon-rocks-sampling-commercial-space-transaction-lunar-marketplace\">https:\/\/www.theverge.com\/2020\/9\/10\/21429850\/nasa-moon-rocks-sampling-commercial-space-transaction-lunar-marketplace<\/a>. <a href=\"#789e8934-1b96-4297-8789-f59d41fd8b34-link\" aria-label=\"Jump to footnote reference 5\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/li><li id=\"77691446-8387-474f-a17a-db06aaca8c71\">United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, \u201cStatus of International Agreements relating to activities in outer space,\u201d January 1, 2023, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.unoosa.org\/res\/oosadoc\/data\/documents\/2023\/aac_105c_22023crp\/aac_105c_22023crp_3_0_html\/AC105_C2_2023_CRP03E.pdf\">https:\/\/www.unoosa.org\/res\/oosadoc\/data\/documents\/2023\/aac_105c_22023crp\/aac_105c_22023crp_3_0_html\/AC105_C2_2023_CRP03E.pdf<\/a>. <a href=\"#77691446-8387-474f-a17a-db06aaca8c71-link\" aria-label=\"Jump to footnote reference 6\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/li><li id=\"b3bade3e-4afc-4f08-8aa2-1e0f3179ece8\">U.S. President, Executive Order, \u201cEncouraging International Support for the Recovery and Use of Space Resources, 2020, Executive Order 13914 of April 6, 2020,\u201d Federal Register 85, No. 70 (April 10, 2020): 20381-20382, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.federalregister.gov\/d\/2020-07800\">https:\/\/www.federalregister.gov\/d\/2020-07800<\/a>. <a href=\"#b3bade3e-4afc-4f08-8aa2-1e0f3179ece8-link\" aria-label=\"Jump to footnote reference 7\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/li><li id=\"60811c56-c646-4e0f-8401-e5a4ba864567\">\u201cThe Artemis Accords Principles For Cooperation In The Civil Exploration And Use Of The Moon, Mars, Comets, And Asteroids For Peaceful Purposes,\u201d October 13, 2020: Section 10, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nasa.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/11\/Artemis-Accords-signed-13Oct2020.pdf\">https:\/\/www.nasa.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/11\/Artemis-Accords-signed-13Oct2020.pdf<\/a>. <a href=\"#60811c56-c646-4e0f-8401-e5a4ba864567-link\" aria-label=\"Jump to footnote reference 8\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/li><li id=\"ff5e5af1-f709-4160-a5b9-953fb386a39d\">\u201cTreaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies,\u201d Art. IV. <a href=\"#ff5e5af1-f709-4160-a5b9-953fb386a39d-link\" aria-label=\"Jump to footnote reference 9\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/li><li id=\"2187165b-c033-4f58-a73a-fa2d0b923fd4\">Adam Satariano, \u201cElon Musk doesn\u2019t want his satellites to run Ukraine\u2019s drones,\u201d The New York Times, February 9, 2023, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2023\/02\/09\/world\/europe\/elon-musk-spacex-starlink-satellite-ukraine.html\">https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2023\/02\/09\/world\/europe\/elon-musk-spacex-starlink-satellite-ukraine.html<\/a>. <a href=\"#2187165b-c033-4f58-a73a-fa2d0b923fd4-link\" aria-label=\"Jump to footnote reference 10\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/li><li id=\"0eb420a4-7ee1-45b7-a9ef-adbdff60ce34\">Elon Musk, Twitter Post, September 7, 2023, 6:48 pm,<br><a href=\"https:\/\/twitter.com\/elonmusk\/status\/1699917639043404146?s=46&amp;t=bZcrLpl8DTxSpYLBntBfhQ\">https:\/\/twitter.com\/elonmusk\/status\/1699917639043404146?s=46&amp;t=bZcrLpl8DTxSpYLBntBfhQ<\/a>. <a href=\"#0eb420a4-7ee1-45b7-a9ef-adbdff60ce34-link\" aria-label=\"Jump to footnote reference 11\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/li><\/ol>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Cover Image via NASA The idea of a \u201cglobal commons\u201d is a zone that exists outside the jurisdiction of any nation but upon which all nations depend for finite, non-excludable resources. The governance framework of treaties and agreements for these commons, such as the Antarctic Treaty of 1959 and the Convention on the Law of [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4678,"featured_media":262,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":"[{\"id\":\"bbc7c74f-c897-41ca-bf6c-d5a8e22f2c38\",\"content\":\"Benjamin Silverstein and Ankit Panda, \\u201cSpace Is a Great Commons. It\\u2019s Time to Treat It as Such,\\u201d The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, March 9, 2021, <a href=\\\"https:\\\/\\\/carnegieendowment.org\\\/2021\\\/03\\\/09\\\/space-is-great- commons.-it-s-time-to-treat-it-as-such-pub-84018\\\">https:\\\/\\\/carnegieendowment.org\\\/2021\\\/03\\\/09\\\/space-is-great-<br>commons.-it-s-time-to-treat-it-as-such-pub-84018<\\\/a>.\"},{\"id\":\"556d10cc-7473-4598-97fa-1897df067872\",\"content\":\"\\u201cConvention on the Law of the Sea,\\u201d opened for signature December 10, 1982, United Nations Treaty Series 1833, No. 31363: art. 88-90, <a href=\\\"https:\\\/\\\/www.un.org\\\/depts\\\/los\\\/convention_agreements\\\/texts\\\/unclos\\\/unclos_e.pdf\\\">https:\\\/\\\/www.un.org\\\/depts\\\/los\\\/convention_agreements\\\/texts\\\/unclos\\\/unclos_e.pdf<\\\/a>; \\u201cThe<br>Antarctic Treaty,\\u201d opened for signature December 1, 1959, United Nations Treaty Series 402, No. 5778: Art. 1-3,<br><a href=\\\"https:\\\/\\\/documents.ats.aq\\\/keydocs\\\/vol_1\\\/vol1_2_AT_Antarctic_Treaty_e.pdf\\\">https:\\\/\\\/documents.ats.aq\\\/keydocs\\\/vol_1\\\/vol1_2_AT_Antarctic_Treaty_e.pdf<\\\/a>.\"},{\"id\":\"a2d42746-5407-46ac-ba91-8d4ab51e65bf\",\"content\":\"\\u201cTreaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies,\\u201d opened for signature December 18, 1979, United Nations Treaty Series 610, No. 8843: Art. 1, <a href=\\\"https:\\\/\\\/www.unoosa.org\\\/pdf\\\/gares\\\/ARES_21_2222E.pdf\\\">https:\\\/\\\/www.unoosa.org\\\/pdf\\\/gares\\\/ARES_21_2222E.pdf<\\\/a>.\"},{\"id\":\"bdd95650-ee04-4d20-9427-64ea044182bd\",\"content\":\"\\u201cAgreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies,\\u201d opened for signature July 11, 1984, United Nations Treaty Series 1363, no. 23002: Art. 11, <a href=\\\"https:\\\/\\\/www.unoosa.org\\\/oosa\\\/en\\\/ourwork\\\/spacelaw\\\/treaties\\\/moon-agreement.html\\\">https:\\\/\\\/www.unoosa.org\\\/oosa\\\/en\\\/ourwork\\\/spacelaw\\\/treaties\\\/moon-agreement.html<\\\/a>.\"},{\"id\":\"789e8934-1b96-4297-8789-f59d41fd8b34\",\"content\":\"Loren Grush, \\u201cNASA wants to buy Moon rocks from private companies,\\u201d The Verge, September 10, 2020, <a href=\\\"https:\\\/\\\/www.theverge.com\\\/2020\\\/9\\\/10\\\/21429850\\\/nasa-moon-rocks-sampling-commercial-space-transaction-lunar-marketplace\\\">https:\\\/\\\/www.theverge.com\\\/2020\\\/9\\\/10\\\/21429850\\\/nasa-moon-rocks-sampling-commercial-space-transaction-lunar-marketplace<\\\/a>.\"},{\"id\":\"77691446-8387-474f-a17a-db06aaca8c71\",\"content\":\"United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, \\u201cStatus of International Agreements relating to activities in outer space,\\u201d January 1, 2023, <a href=\\\"https:\\\/\\\/www.unoosa.org\\\/res\\\/oosadoc\\\/data\\\/documents\\\/2023\\\/aac_105c_22023crp\\\/aac_105c_22023crp_3_0_html\\\/AC105_C2_2023_CRP03E.pdf\\\">https:\\\/\\\/www.unoosa.org\\\/res\\\/oosadoc\\\/data\\\/documents\\\/2023\\\/aac_105c_22023crp\\\/aac_105c_22023crp_3_0_html\\\/AC105_C2_2023_CRP03E.pdf<\\\/a>.\"},{\"id\":\"b3bade3e-4afc-4f08-8aa2-1e0f3179ece8\",\"content\":\"U.S. President, Executive Order, \\u201cEncouraging International Support for the Recovery and Use of Space Resources, 2020, Executive Order 13914 of April 6, 2020,\\u201d Federal Register 85, No. 70 (April 10, 2020): 20381-20382, <a href=\\\"https:\\\/\\\/www.federalregister.gov\\\/d\\\/2020-07800\\\">https:\\\/\\\/www.federalregister.gov\\\/d\\\/2020-07800<\\\/a>.\"},{\"id\":\"60811c56-c646-4e0f-8401-e5a4ba864567\",\"content\":\"\\u201cThe Artemis Accords Principles For Cooperation In The Civil Exploration And Use Of The Moon, Mars, Comets, And Asteroids For Peaceful Purposes,\\u201d October 13, 2020: Section 10, <a href=\\\"https:\\\/\\\/www.nasa.gov\\\/wp-content\\\/uploads\\\/2022\\\/11\\\/Artemis-Accords-signed-13Oct2020.pdf\\\">https:\\\/\\\/www.nasa.gov\\\/wp-content\\\/uploads\\\/2022\\\/11\\\/Artemis-Accords-signed-13Oct2020.pdf<\\\/a>.\"},{\"id\":\"ff5e5af1-f709-4160-a5b9-953fb386a39d\",\"content\":\"\\u201cTreaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies,\\u201d Art. IV.\"},{\"id\":\"2187165b-c033-4f58-a73a-fa2d0b923fd4\",\"content\":\"Adam Satariano, \\u201cElon Musk doesn\\u2019t want his satellites to run Ukraine\\u2019s drones,\\u201d The New York Times, February 9, 2023, <a href=\\\"https:\\\/\\\/www.nytimes.com\\\/2023\\\/02\\\/09\\\/world\\\/europe\\\/elon-musk-spacex-starlink-satellite-ukraine.html\\\">https:\\\/\\\/www.nytimes.com\\\/2023\\\/02\\\/09\\\/world\\\/europe\\\/elon-musk-spacex-starlink-satellite-ukraine.html<\\\/a>.\"},{\"id\":\"0eb420a4-7ee1-45b7-a9ef-adbdff60ce34\",\"content\":\"Elon Musk, Twitter Post, September 7, 2023, 6:48 pm,<br><a href=\\\"https:\\\/\\\/twitter.com\\\/elonmusk\\\/status\\\/1699917639043404146?s=46&amp;t=bZcrLpl8DTxSpYLBntBfhQ\\\">https:\\\/\\\/twitter.com\\\/elonmusk\\\/status\\\/1699917639043404146?s=46&amp;t=bZcrLpl8DTxSpYLBntBfhQ<\\\/a>.\"}]"},"categories":[1],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-209","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-uncategorized"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/sites.nd.edu\/beyond-politics\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/209","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/sites.nd.edu\/beyond-politics\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/sites.nd.edu\/beyond-politics\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/sites.nd.edu\/beyond-politics\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/4678"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/sites.nd.edu\/beyond-politics\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=209"}],"version-history":[{"count":15,"href":"https:\/\/sites.nd.edu\/beyond-politics\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/209\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":482,"href":"https:\/\/sites.nd.edu\/beyond-politics\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/209\/revisions\/482"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/sites.nd.edu\/beyond-politics\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/262"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/sites.nd.edu\/beyond-politics\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=209"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/sites.nd.edu\/beyond-politics\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=209"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/sites.nd.edu\/beyond-politics\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=209"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}