{"id":122,"date":"2021-08-21T15:56:36","date_gmt":"2021-08-21T19:56:36","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/sites.nd.edu\/world-politics-2021\/?page_id=122"},"modified":"2023-03-31T15:29:10","modified_gmt":"2023-03-31T19:29:10","slug":"leninist-challenge","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/sites.nd.edu\/world-politics-2021\/leninist-challenge\/","title":{"rendered":"Leninist Challenge"},"content":{"rendered":"
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PART III<\/strong><\/h1>\n<\/header>\n
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In this section of our course, I will focus on the glorious rise and abrupt demise of the Leninist Nation-state<\/em><\/strong>, one of the most dramatic stories of modern times. Here\u2019s a point we can all agree upon: \u00a0The communist regimes of the past century pursued policies horrific policies; millions of people died under\u00a0Leninist<\/strong><\/em>\u00a0rule. This is a fact. Still, if we want to make sense of this significant chunk of human history, we have to ask why these regimes lasted as long as they did.\u00a0 After all, for much of the twentieth century there were as many\u00a0Leninist\u00a0<\/strong>Nation-states<\/strong><\/em>\u00a0in the world as\u00a0Liberal Democratic<\/strong><\/em>\u00a0states.\u00a0Leninism<\/strong><\/em>\u00a0represented the preeminent challenge to\u00a0Liberal Democracy<\/strong><\/em>in the modern age.<\/p>\n

Making sense of this historical period isn\u2019t just a matter of appreciating a now-deceased idea of political organization. The legacy of\u00a0Leninism\u00a0<\/strong><\/em>helps us to understand the popularity and practices of (noncommunist) leaders like Vladimir Putin and Kim Jong-un today. Even more important, this period provides essential clues to understanding the world today. Why do people fall prey to populist and autocratic perspectives in our part of the world? And what would it take to persuade them not to be bewitched by these perspectives?\u00a0 In other words, the past is present\u2014and future.<\/p>\n

I have written extensively on this issue. \u00a0\"\"If you like, feel free to read my recent book,\u00a0Vanguard of the Revolution<\/em><\/a>. What the journal\u00a0Foreign Affairs<\/em>\u00a0thinks:\u00a0HERE<\/a><\/p>\n


\n17. LECTURE:\u00a0Monday, September 27<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

Reflections on Karl Marx\u2019s Communist Manifesto and its\u00a0significance for the history of world communism.<\/em><\/p>\n

Today\u2019s Question<\/em>: Why did so many smart, well-educated people (i.e., elites like you!) become Marxists<\/em><\/strong>? My argument is that\u00a0Marxism\u00a0<\/strong><\/em>shared many of the same foundations as\u00a0Liberalism,<\/strong><\/em>\u00a0even though it represented a radical critique of\u00a0Liberal<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0thought.<\/strong>\u00a0\u00a0It is essential to understand\u00a0Marxism<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0because it paved the way for a fundamentally different path to the\u00a0Modern Nation-state<\/em><\/strong>.<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

In the contemporary world, it is equally important to ask why an intelligent person would support violent extremism, either on the Left or on the Right. \u00a0This human pathology just won\u2019t go away.<\/p>\n

Assignment<\/em>:\u00a0 Read the\u00a0Manifesto<\/em>\u00a0carefully\u2013I suggest, at least three times.\u00a0It is one of the greatest and\u00a0most influential\u00a0\"\"publications of all time<\/a>. Look beyond the details for Marx\u2019s overarching argument. What kind of argument is he making against capitalism?\u00a0 Why would it have been so appealing to many 19th and 20th century radicals?\u00a0 Indeed, why might it even appeal to contemporary populist politicians, especially Bernie Sanders and, yes, even Donald Trump. As you read the essay, pay close attention to what Marx says about the revolutionary character of the bourgeoisie.<\/p>\n

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, \u00a0The Communist Manifesto<\/em>, sections, 1, 2, and 4.<\/p>\n

Read the following articles to get a sense for the environment in which Marx\u2019s ideas thrived:<\/p>\n

Friedrich Engels, \u201cOn the Condition of the Working Class in England\u201d\u00a0PRINT AND READ<\/a><\/p>\n

M. Faraday, July 7, 1855, \u201cThe Filth of the Thames\u201d \u00a0PRINT AND TAKE NOTES<\/a><\/p>\n

John McCain, \u201cSalute to a Communist\u201d\u00a0READ<\/a><\/p>\n

How could a Republican politician and true American hero<\/span>, like John McCain, find anything to admire about a communist?\u00a0 In my view, McCain was an admirable human being. He thought for himself and epitomized the decency and compassion we should expect from any democratic leader.\u00a0 I have visited the Hoa Lo prison where he was held. If you look toward the bottom of this article<\/a>, you’ll find Cell 13.\u00a0 I have stood next to that door and looked at the guillotine.<\/p>\n

18. LECTURE:\u00a0\u00a0Wednesday, September 29<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

Reflections on the roots of the Bolshevik revolution: Czarist Russia and the unintended consequences of imperial ambition.<\/em><\/p>\n

Today\u2019s Assumption<\/em>:\u00a0 Marx never expected that his proletarian revolution would take place in the East.\u00a0\u00a0In fact, he predicted it would not. \u00a0So, how did the event happen?\u00a0 Like everything, communism has a history: Before we turn to the Bolshevik revolution of October 1917 in order to understand why this context was better suited to mass upheaval than the western industrial world.<\/p>\n

\"\"
\u041b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043d \u0436\u0438\u0432\u0435\u0442! (Lenin lives!) My photo of the Lenin statue in Minsk, Belarus.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

In considering the Bolshevik revolution, I also seek to address the issue of historical and political change. \u00a0Since people use and overuse the word \u201crevolution\u201d all the time, I want you to think about how we should distinguish between truly\u00a0 \u201crevolutionary\u201d events, on the one hand, and events that are only highly significant, on the other. \u00a0In my view, with which some observers would disagree, there haven\u2019t been many revolutions in modern history. \u00a0Indeed, I am not totally convinced that the American Revolution was a \u201crevolution,\u201d at least not socially or economically.\u00a0 Please feel free to disagree with me.<\/p>\n

These two sources, one an article and the other, a video, are meant to provide you with a general background to the Bolshevik Revolution and its antecedents:<\/p>\n

\u201cRussian Revolution of 1917,\u201d\u00a0New World Encyclopedia\u00a0<\/em>READ<\/a><\/p>\n

\u201cThe Russian Revolution,\u201d DocumentaryTube.com (1:33.54) \u00a0WATCH<\/a>\u00a0 (Watch as much of this film as you can. \u00a0It\u2019s fascinating and full of terrific footage)<\/p>\n

19. DISCUSSION SECTION:\u00a0 Friday, October 1<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

Discussion<\/em>: \u00a0The\u00a0Communist Manifesto<\/em> was once banned across the United States.\u00a0 Now you can read it and try to figure out what all the fuss was about. (Or was it simply dumb to ban it?)\u00a0 I am strongly opposed to the banning of books\u2014why do Americans fear of books like Fahrenheit 451, <\/em>Catcher in the Rye<\/em>,\u00a0Ulysses<\/em>,\u00a0Lady Chatterley\u2019s Lover<\/em>, etc? After all, why should we be afraid of words? Yet, the saga continues<\/a>. Interestingly, Marx\u2019s thinking was, in some ways, consonant with\u00a0Liberal<\/strong><\/em> ideals.\u00a0 Yet, he came to radically different conclusions about whether Liberalism<\/strong><\/em>\u2019s idealistic principles could be realized. \u00a0How can both of these claims be true?\u00a0 Keep in mind that\u00a0Marxism,\u00a0<\/strong><\/em>\u00a0like woolly mammoths and alligators, and had to come from somewhere.\u00a0 In fact, it had the same historical roots as\u00a0Liberalism<\/strong><\/em>.<\/p>\n

Assignment<\/em>:\u00a0 How might the essential aspects of Marx\u2019s critique of capitalism appeal to contemporary populist politicians, especially Bernie Sanders and, yes, even Donald Trump (but not to non-populist traditional politicians like Joe Biden and Mitt Romney)?<\/p>\n

20. LECTURE:\u00a0 Monday, October 4<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

Vladimir Ilyich Lenin and his successors transformed elementary Marxism<\/strong>\u00a0into a new political identity:\u00a0Leninism<\/strong>\u00a0(originally known as Bolshevism).<\/em><\/p>\n

Today\u2019s Assumption<\/em>:\u00a0Leninism<\/strong><\/em> was all about defining Marxism. <\/em><\/strong>Marx did not and could not have imagined how Lenin and his successors adapted his ideas to backward Russia.\u00a0 \u00a0Although Lenin was a mediocre philosopher and historian, he was a world-historical revolutionary.\u00a0\u00a0 He knew instinctively how to apply a western recipe for radical change to a backward country.\u00a0 For this reason, I contend that \u201cMarx was archaeopteryx and Lenin was his bird.\u201d \u00a0See HERE<\/a><\/p>\n

Assignment<\/em>:\u00a0 The best way to understand the fully tragic\u00a0implications<\/em>\u00a0of\u00a0Leninism<\/strong><\/em>\u00a0is to see how it was implemented at the height of the Soviet revolution under Josef Stalin.\u00a0 To this end, I am asking you to read the\u00a0Man\u00a0himself.<\/p>\n

Selections from Josef Stalin,\u00a0Foundations of\u00a0<\/em>Leninism. \u00a0<\/em>PRINT AND READ<\/a> Section 4 (\u201cDictatorship of the Proletariat\u201d) and Section 8 \u00a0(\u201cThe Party\u201d)\u00a0 Get a general sense for Stalin\u2019s argument; don\u2019t worry about the details.\u00a0 Treat the document as though it were a handbook (like the Boy Scout and Girl\u00a0 Scout handbooks).\u00a0 This is exactly what it was.\u00a0 It was intended to give Bolsheviks a clear and definitive understanding of what they should do.<\/p>\n

The rousing anthem, \u201cThe International,\u201d became the hymn for communist and other radical working-class movements throughout the world.<\/p>\n

Watch Pete Seeger sing the \u00a0The Internationale<\/em><\/a>.\u00a0 I sang it to my tour guides when I was in Pyongyang, North Korea and it drove them crazy.\u00a0\u00a0How could they prevent me from paying tribute to one of their ideological forebears!\u00a0 Yet the entire time I was in North Korea, I only saw one picture of Marx and Lenin.\u00a0 Alas–but revealingly–they were removed not long thereafter.<\/p>\n

More versions of the International:<\/p>\n

The classic Soviet version\u00a0WATCH<\/a><\/p>\n

Also, from the movie \u2018Reds\u2019 starring Warren Beatty and Diane Keaton: \u00a0\u00a0WATCH<\/a><\/p>\n

Also, Chinese pop version\u00a0WATCH<\/a><\/p>\n

Also, Bill Murray\u2019s puppet sings:\u00a0WATCH<\/a><\/p>\n

Also, Rage Against the Machine:\u00a0WATCH<\/a><\/p>\n

Also, listen to \u201cOccupy Wall Street\u201d protesters sing the Internationale\u00a0WATCH\u00a0<\/a>\u00a0(I\u2019m not sure that many actually knew the words, but it\u2019s interesting that they sang it)<\/p>\n

21.\u00a0LECTURE:\u00a0Wednesday, October 6<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

Reflections on the transmogrification of\u00a0Marxist and Leninist<\/strong>\u00a0utopia into\u00a0Stalinist<\/strong>\u00a0terror.<\/em><\/p>\n

Today\u2019s Assumption<\/em>: Stalin\u2019s regime of terror was intrinsically, if not inevitably, rooted in the goals and institutions of\u00a0Leninism<\/em><\/strong>. \u00a0Leninism<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0also degenerated into horrific violence in other countries, especially China. Alas, in this course we don\u2019t have enough time to cover the varied expressions of this degeneration outside of the Soviet Union.\u00a0 However, if you are interested, you can see my account of these experiences in my latest book,\u00a0\u00a0Vanguard of the Revolution.<\/em><\/p>\n

\u201cPurges and Hysteria in the Soviet Union\u201d:\u00a0READ<\/a>\u00a0 (all six pages)<\/p>\n

Ode\u00a0to Stalin:\u00a0\u00a0READ<\/a><\/p>\n

22. DISCUSSION SECTION: \u00a0Friday, October 8<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

\"\"<\/strong><\/p>\n

Paragraph assignment<\/em>: \u00a0\u201cIf Marx was an\u00a0archaeopteryx<\/a>, would that make Lenin his bird?\u201d<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/p>\n

Discussion<\/em>: \u00a0You have been assigned to start a political, social, and\/or cultural revolution\u2013a real one!\u2013at Notre Dame. Based upon your reading of the the Communist Manifesto<\/em>\u00a0and the\u00a0chapters from Stalin\u2019s\u00a0Foundations of Leninism<\/em>, please exuberantly and passionately discuss the following two questions: \u00a01) what would Lenin (and Stalin) advise you to do to foment this revolution? and 2) what challenges would you face in fomenting this revolution and then keeping it going?<\/p>\n

23. LECTURE:\u00a0\u00a0Monday, October 11<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

Reflections on the\u00a0Leninist\u00a0<\/strong>challenge to\u00a0Liberal Democracy<\/strong>.<\/em><\/p>\n

Today\u2019s Assumption<\/em>:\u00a0Leninism\u00a0<\/strong><\/em>was initially a credible challenge to\u00a0Liberal Democracy<\/strong><\/em>. \u00a0Its lasting appeal was reinforced by a variety of factors. \u00a0In the 1980s, I had the rather unusual experience of living in East Germany. I\u2019ll attempt to give you a sense for these factors by sharing some of my experiences in the years before the fall of the Berlin Wall.\u00a0 To live in the Soviet bloc at that time was very different\u2013and, its own way, more \u201cnormal\u201d\u2013than under Stalin\u2019s totalitarian regime.\u00a0 I\u2019ll explain how and why.<\/p>\n

In the 1980s, all of the experts, including yours truly, were skeptical about the idea that people living under communism could rise up spontaneously against their leaders.\u00a0 Yet in the late 1970s, dissidents like the physicist Andrei Sakharov and the playwright Vaclav Havel, \"\"were already providing the ideas about why such events might occur.<\/p>\n

NOTE: Havel\u2019s essay is not only about life in Czechoslovakia. \u00a0It is about the difference between \u201cliving within a lie\u201d and \u201cliving within the truth\u201d in any society, including the US. \u00a0The dispute over the meaning of \u201ctruth\u201d and its implications for our behavior is also central to the crisis of American democracy today.<\/p>\n

At this stage of our discussion, let\u2019s ask why McAdams and other experts underestimated the power of Havel\u2019s account.<\/p>\n

V\u00e1clav Havel, \u201cPower of the Powerless,\u201d in\u00a0Open Letters: Selected Writings, 1965-1990<\/em>, sections I-VI.<\/p>\n

The \u201cPower of the Powerless\u201d is challenging reading. I am honored that you will take up this challenge.<\/p>\n

Read this brief article on the Czechoslovakia\u2019s Charter 77 movement (HERE<\/a>) for background, as well as this short article on\u00a0Havel\u2019s life<\/a><\/p>\n

24. FILM:\u00a0 Wednesday, October 13<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

Today, we will have an in-class film:\u00a0 \u201cJourney to Russia.”\u00a0 \u00a0This documentary is a fantastic depiction of life as people actually lived it\u00a0<\/em>in the Soviet Union in the early 1980s.\u00a0 You will immediately see how it is related to my Monday lecture<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

25. DISCUSSION SECTION:\u00a0\u00a0 Friday, October 15<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

Topic:\u00a0\u00a0<\/strong><\/em>LIving within a lie under communism\u00a0 . . . and in advanced democracies?<\/strong><\/p>\n

Discuss the first half of \u201cPower of the Powerless.\u201d\u00a0 Why is the green grocer so important to Havel\u2019s argument?\u00a0 Would you have acted differently than the green grocer if you had lived in a\u00a0Leninist\u00a0<\/i><\/b>state?\u00a0 What kinds of events would be required to convince the green grocer that he should rebel?\u00a0 What types of circumstances would persuade you, too, to rebel?<\/p>\n

Paragraph Assignment<\/em>: \u00a0To what extent, if at all, do we \u201clive within a lie\u201d in the United States\u201d?\u00a0 Consider this study about the choice between truth-telling and happiness while you write your response:\u00a0\u00a0HERE<\/a><\/p>\n

\n
Mid-Term Break:\u00a0 October 16-24<\/strong><\/h5>\n

This week you will have a somewhat heavier reading load than normal.\u00a0 Apologies.\u00a0 Your primary assignment is to prepare for Friday’s discussion by finishing<\/span> Vaclav’s essay, “Power of the Powerless.”<\/p>\n

26.\u00a0 LECTURE:\u00a0 Monday, October 25<\/strong><\/p>\n

\n

Reflections on the sudden and total collapse of the\u00a0Leninis<\/i><\/b>t N<\/i>ation-State.<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

Today\u2019s Assumption<\/em>:\u00a0 No one predicted this explosive development (in the serious sense of\u00a0 the word \u201cprediction\u201d).\u00a0 By the same token,\u00a0Leninism<\/i><\/b>\u00a0was not destined to collapse when it did.<\/p>\n

Assignment<\/em>: \u00a0Reflect upon Mikhail Gorbachev\u2019s role in the fall of the\u00a0Leninist<\/i><\/b>\u00a0N<\/i><\/strong><\/em>ation-State<\/strong><\/p>\n

Learn about Gorbachev\u2019s concept of\u00a0Leninist<\/i><\/b><\/em>\u00a0reform\u00a0READ<\/a><\/p>\n

Based upon what you have seen, could\u00a0Leninism<\/i><\/b><\/em>\u00a0have been reformed in the way Gorbachev hoped?\u00a0\u00a0 How compatible were Gorbachev\u2019s two primary reform concepts (below)\u00a0with the\u00a0Leninist\u00a0<\/i><\/b><\/em>political identity?<\/p>\n

Gorbachev\u2019s concept of Perestroika \u00a0READ<\/a><\/p>\n

Gorbachev\u2019s concept of Glasnost\u00a0READ<\/a><\/p>\n

Implications: \u00a0What lessons can we learn from the communist experience about the collapse of dictatorships in general? Is it enough to present people with the\u00a0facts<\/strong>\u00a0about a dictatorship\u2019s failings to make them want to risk rebellion?\u00a0 Why do some people refuse to accept facts even in liberal democracies?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

Additional assignment<\/strong><\/p>\n

In preparation for my lecture a week-and-a-half from now (Wednesday, November 3) please watch the wonderful film, \u201cMister Johnson,\u201d on our on-line Hesburgh Reserves site\u00a0 HERE<\/a><\/p>\n

The film, which stars one of the former James Bonds, Pierce Brosnan<\/a>, is simultaneously engaging, humorous, moving, and tragic.<\/p>\n

\n

27 LECTURE:\u00a0 Wednesday, October 27<\/strong><\/p>\n

Reflections on the fuzzy transition to post-communism in the 1990s and then the advance of populist demagoguery in the 2010s.<\/em><\/p>\n

Another surprise!<\/em>\u00a0As if the fall of Leninism<\/i><\/b><\/em> fell between 1989 and 1991 were not a big enough surprise, another surprise came not long thereafter. Almost immediately after these happy developments, most of the the post-communist states of the former Soviet bloc swiftly adopted Liberal Democratic<\/strong><\/em> institutions. Yet despite all the promise of this period, the populations of many of these states now face a sobering question: \u00a0Will viable democracy survive in any meaningful sense?\u00a0 The past decade’s developments in Hungary, Poland, and Russia give us cause to worry.\u00a0 However, those in Slovakia, Ukraine, and the Czech Republic give us cause for hope.<\/p>\n

First, some peculiar signs of life after communist dictatorship!\"\"<\/p>\n

Gorbachev sings\u00a0LISTEN<\/a><\/p>\n

Vladimir Putin plays piano and sings\u00a0WATCH<\/a><\/p>\n

Assignments<\/em>:<\/p>\n

For your discussion section on Friday, finish reading V\u00e1clav Havel,\u00a0\u201cPower of the Powerless,\u201d in\u00a0Open Letters: Selected Writings, 1965-1990.<\/em><\/p>\n

What is new and what has changed after the revolutions of 1989-1991?<\/p>\n

Vladimir Tismaneanu, \u201cThe Legacies of 1989: \u00a0The Moving Ruins\u201d\u00a0Journal of Democracy<\/em>, January 2014 See JSTOR at Hesburgh Library e-Journals \u00a0PRINT AND READ<\/a><\/p>\n

Jaroslaw Kuisz and Karolina Wigura,\u00a0Foreign Policy<\/em>, May 13, 2020,\u00a0\u201cWhy populists understand eastern Europe better than liberals,\u201d\u00a0READ<\/a><\/p>\n

Reflect<\/em>:\u00a0 Why would Stalin still be popular in Russia?\u00a0\u00a0WATCH<\/a>\u00a0this video from Al Jazeera, and consider Nadia Beard, \u201cStalin Rises Again\u201d\u00a0READ<\/a><\/p>\n

Julia Ioffe, \u201cWhy many young Russians see a hero in Putin\u201d\u00a0READ<\/a><\/p>\n

\n

Jaros\u0142aw Kuisz and\u00a0Karolina Wigura, \u201cThe Pushback Against Populism\u00a0Reclaiming the Politics of Emotion<\/span>,\u201d\u00a0Journal of Democracy<\/em>, April 2020 at Hesburgh, \u00a0through Project Muse\u00a0\u00a0PRINT AND READ<\/a>
\nThis article has some good ideas about how the defenders of liberal democracy should combat populism; I\u2019ll return to them later in the semester.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

Once you have read these articles, reflect upon\u00a0alternative\u00a0models for this transition:\u00a0 \u00a0mass extinction<\/a>\u00a0or archaeopteryx.\u00a0\u00a0What would the adoption of one or the other image tell you about the nature of political change.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

28. DISCUSSION SECTION:\u00a0\u00a0 Friday, October 29<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

V\u00e1clav Havel, \u201cPower of the Powerless,\u201d in\u00a0Open Letters: Selected Writings, 1965-1990:<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

BY NOW, YOU SHOULD HAVED FINISHED READING THE ESSAY<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

Topic:\u00a0 What must we do to live within the truth? And, how can we convince others to do so as well.<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

Discussion<\/em>:\u00a0 Finish your discussion of Havel by asking what makes the green grocer revolt.\u00a0 Is Havel\u2019s analysis persuasive?\u00a0 Or when we are dealing with\u00a0oppressive dictatorships, is it just wishful thinking to expect that the weak will rise up against the strong?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

Similarly, when people living in democracies are persuaded by the powerful to “live within a lie,” is it possible to persuade them to rise up against those seek to manipulate them?<\/p>\n

\n
\n

Paragraph Assignment<\/em>: \u00a0Identify one example of people \u201cliving within a lie\u201d in the United States today and specify how you could persuade them to change their view and “live within the truth.”<\/p>\n

Your\u00a0Second Reflective Essay Question<\/strong> is HERE
\nYou have one week to complete it.<\/h5>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

PART III In this section of our course, I will focus on the glorious rise and abrupt demise of the Leninist Nation-state, one of the most dramatic stories of modern times. Here\u2019s a point we can all agree upon: \u00a0The communist regimes of the past century pursued policies horrific policies; millions of people died under\u00a0Leninist\u00a0rule. … Continue reading “Leninist Challenge”<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":114,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-122","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/sites.nd.edu\/world-politics-2021\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/122","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/sites.nd.edu\/world-politics-2021\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/sites.nd.edu\/world-politics-2021\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/sites.nd.edu\/world-politics-2021\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/114"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/sites.nd.edu\/world-politics-2021\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=122"}],"version-history":[{"count":32,"href":"https:\/\/sites.nd.edu\/world-politics-2021\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/122\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1024,"href":"https:\/\/sites.nd.edu\/world-politics-2021\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/122\/revisions\/1024"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/sites.nd.edu\/world-politics-2021\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=122"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}