Notes on Teaching and Learning

Seasoned instructors and new TAs alike wonder if they have assigned the right amount of work and how to get the students to complete it.  Though the general rule of thumb is to assign two hours of homework for every hour spent in class, what does that mean in terms of the number of pages to be read or homework problems to be solved?   And what kind of work is most motivating and beneficial for student learning?

• “Young people today…”

With the caveat that tracking time spent studying is challenging, it seems that the time college students spend preparing for class each week remained about stable between 2000 and 2010.  These recent trends also match closely with data collected in the late 1980s and early 1990s on student time use.  These figures are down from a 1961 study, but that difference reflects dramatic changes in higher education (e.g. more diverse student bodies, an increase in the number of students working full- or part-time, more faculty prioritizing research over teaching as a response to institutional pressures).

• Promoting deep learning

Many instructors hope to promote deep learning, in which students take a critical stance toward the material, can draw independent conclusions, and have some theoretical understanding of the material.  When students feel overburdened with the material, they are more likely to see it as unintelligible and engage in only surface learning.  Deep learning requires students to have sufficient time to reflect and find their own voice in the course.  If anything, restricting the scope of the course material may encourage deep learning.

• Motivation and the problem of workload vs difficulty

Students tend to perceive their difficulty of an assignment and the time they spend on it together as a measure of workload.  Under conditions of higher workloads, self-motivated students benefit by engaging in deep learning.  But other students feel overwhelmed by too high a perceived workload and may become discouraged.  To create a course that is both motivating and challenging for different types of students, consider assignments that target only one of these conditions:  assign a short task with a high degree of complexity or a longer but simpler task.

• A rule of thumb on reading speeds

Easy text = 100 words per minute

Straightforward text = 70 words per minute

Dense text = 40 words per minute

These guidelines include time for thinking, reflection, note-taking, or other interpretive activities such as answering response questions.  Of course, you may need to deviate from the above suggestions based on the experience of your students and the type of material you teach.  A literature class on novels will require more to be read, and a course on poetry or philosophy may benefit from even shorter readings than the above suggestions.

• Communicate with students about workload

Rather than wondering how long students are spending on the material, survey them anonymously.  You can then alter the workload if necessary, or give strategies to students to improve their efficiency.  Many students entering college take unnecessarily detailed or unfocused notes, do not know how to identify key points in a text (such as the thesis of a chapter), or have poor review and study strategies.  Explain to students that their ability, motivation, and study behaviors work together to influence academic performance.

References:

Chambers, Ellie. “Work-Load and the Quality of Student Learning.” Studies in Higher Education 17, no. 2 (January 1, 1992): 141–53.

Kyndt, Eva et. al., “The Direct and Indirect Effect of Motivation for Learning on Students’ Approaches to Learning through the Perceptions of Workload and Task Complexity,” Higher Education Research & Development, 30, no. 2 (2011), 135-150.

McCormick, Alexander C. “It’s about Time: What to Make of Reported Declines in How Much College Students Study.” Text. Association of American Colleges & Universities, January 24, 2011. https://www.aacu.org/publications-research/periodicals/its-about-time-what-make-reported-declines-how-much-college.

Nonis, Sarah A. & Gail I. Hudson. “Academic Performance of College Students:  Influence of

Time Spent Studying and Working.” Journal of Education for Business 81, no. 3 (2006), 151-159.

One of the most common complaints about participation grades from both students and teachers is their subjectivity. Whether these grades are assigned once or twice per semester or for every class period, most participation grades involve teachers evaluating students on how often and how well they engage in class discussion. While there is nothing inherently wrong with this system, it can be challenging to determine an appropriate grade and to put aside extraneous factors that might impact that score.  If you are looking for some additional strategies to supplement your evaluation of students’ participation, consider trying one of the following methods:

• Student self-evaluations. Ask students to give themselves a participation score and write why they feel they deserve that grade. This strategy allows students to reflect on their own participation and to look for ways that they might improve their performance in class. While some students will say they (undeservingly) deserve full credit, most students are actually tougher participation graders than their teachers. Think about the weight you will give self-evaluations compared to your own evaluations, and consider using the same rubric for both their evaluations and yours. This activity can be done any number of times throughout the semester, and could be a formal or informal evaluation of how they participated in class.
• Peer evaluations. Occasionally over the course of the semester, you can have students “vote” for fellow students who they learned the most from in class or who they would choose to work with on a project. You could also ask students which particular comments in class they found the most insightful. (Try to keep it positive – it is probably not a good idea for students to identify “problem students” in their midst.) This also encourages students to actively listen to what their peers are saying in discussion, and gives you a chance to affirm quality participation from your students.
• Short participation assignments. Have students take a more active role in generating discussion for your class. You could have students submit questions for discussion, lead one or more class sessions, give short, in-class presentations, or write reaction papers on the daily readings. You could also use short mini-quizzes/clicker quizzes to ensure students are coming to class prepared for discussion, or have students write one-minute papers on the topic for the day. When used as low-stakes assessments (as partial credit for that day’s participation grade), these activities will be less burdensome for students and provide a more objective means of evaluating class participation.
• Participation outside of class. Try setting up a discussion board on Sakai, student blogs, or another course management system. Encourage students to post their own reflections on course materials, to add relevant articles and real-world applications, and to comment on what others post. This allows students to make connections outside of the classroom, and conveniently provides written documentation for you to grade at your own pace. It also offers a space for students to participate who might not otherwise speak up in class but are nonetheless engaged in the course.

Regardless of how you plan to evaluate student participation, be sure to communicate your grading scheme to your students. Define what “counts” as participation in your syllabus, a rubric, or by telling your students before using one of the above activities. Using a rubric, in particular, can be an effective method for grading on observable behaviors (such as whether the student attended and spoke up in class, was prepared for discussion, etc.). As you work to grade participation fairly and consistently, be sure to let students know why you are grading participation through alternative means; they will likely appreciate your efforts to reduce subjectivity in your evaluations of their contributions to the class.

Additional Resources

• “Encouraging and Evaluating Class Participation” (Czekanski & Wolf)
• “ISO: A Better Way to Evaluate Student Participation” (Gooblar)
• “Grading Class Participation” (UNSW Australia)
• “Daydreaming or Deep in Thought? Using Formative Assessment to Evaluate Student Participation” (Ives)

“5 page minimum, 12 point Times New Roman, double-spaced, one inch margins, with 0pt spacing between paragraphs and your name in the upper right-hand corner of the first page.”

Teachers go to great lengths in their syllabi to ensure that students are actually doing course work rather than (ab)using loopholes to meet the minimum requirements. At its worst, students might try to skirt class rules and point to the syllabus as justification. However, students also receive syllabi from a number of professors every semester (each with a different set of policies), so clarity is essential even for students simply trying to succeed in the course. Aside from serving as a contract between the teacher and student, having a syllabus void of loopholes, pitfalls, and ambiguity just reduces headaches and confusion for all. This post points out five common sources of ambiguity in course policies and offers tips on how to fix that ambiguity, short of having a syllabus that is a legalistic tome of 50 pages.

1. “Assignment is due at midnight on…” If you are having students turn in assignments in the middle of the night, make a slight change to specify 11:59pm instead of midnight, which students could interpret as the morning of or the morning after the due date. Whenever your assignments are due, consider offering instructions as to how students should turn them in (by email, in class, online, etc.). If you are accepting electronic assignments, will you accept work delayed by incorrect attachments, computer malfunctions, or other technological excuses? Also be certain to clarify whether reading assignments are to be completed before class on the day they are listed on the syllabus or are assigned for the next class period.
2. Assignment length. Teachers have seen everything: 2.5 spacing, making punctuation larger, anything to get over the page minimum (or under the page maximum). If you want students to be able to write papers of a certain length, consider specifying a word minimum/maximum instead of a specific number of pages. (As a loose guideline, one double-spaced page is approximately 250 words.) If page length is less important to you then content, you should also communicate that to your students.
3. Makeup work and rewrites. Will you accept makeup work if a student misses class on a particular day? If so, when is that makeup work due? If they are going to miss class on the day an assignment is due, how should they submit it to you?
4. Attendance. If you have an attendance policy, when during the class do you take attendance? How long does a student have to be in class for their attendance to “count?” Consider counting attendance as part of participation to reduce the emphasis on merely showing up.
5. Grading. Some of the stickiest points involving grading include: whether/how you will round grades, whether you will grade on a curve (and how that curve is constructed), whether students need to complete certain assignments to pass the course, and whether/how students can ask for a re-grade of any assignments. Grading is one of the largest sources of anxiety and ambiguity for students; in your syllabi, assignments, and rubrics, try to be as clear as possible, even if it seems unnecessary to you.

With these and other potential loopholes, it may be tempting to fill your syllabus with rules for every possible scenario. While it is wise to write clearly in your syllabus, include the policies that are most important to you, and leave out any policies that you are not comfortable enforcing or that can be addressed in other course handouts. Furthermore, allow room to expand on the syllabus by including a statement reserving the right to make changes if they will benefit the student. Finally, have a trusted friend or advisor look over your syllabus for potential loopholes or sources of ambiguity.

What should you do if a student finds a loophole?

Amber Comer suggests that, as in the legal system, teachers with students who have exploited a loophole in the syllabus should “(reluctantly) set the students free” and fix the loophole before the next semester. You can also open up conversations about the syllabus with your students to determine the appropriate course of action or get students involved in forming course policies. Syllabi are consistently changing, so treat each semester as a learning experience to reduce loopholes, pitfalls, and ambiguity in the future.

Additional Resources

• The Course Syllabus: A Learning-Centered Approach (O’Brien)
• “The 3 Essential Functions of Your Syllabus, Part I” (Lang)
• “The Syllabus: Setting a Tone for Learning and Engagement” (Hubert)
• “Constructing Syllabi that Integrate New Approaches to Instruction: A Balancing Act” (DeZure)

Ever wish you could spice up that first day of class so that it doesn’t just include you reading from the syllabus? Below are some efficient ways to disseminate syllabus information that may be more dynamic and interesting than simply reading out the text of the syllabus word by word:

• The book, Teaching What You Don’t Know, which is highly recommended by the Kaneb Center, suggests requiring students to perform a “Student Group Syllabus Review.” The task includes having students read through the syllabus and answer focused discussion questions together. This is a fun, active learning exercise that ensures that students are fully acknowledging the terms and content of your syllabus.
• On his blog, Open Thinking, Dr. Alec Couros at The University of Regina suggests creating a course trailer to show on the first day of class. This is great idea for those who are tech savvy, especially those who will be asking their students to design multimedia projects. You might not be able to include all the important information here (grading scale, etc) but the trailer will enable you to at least address major themes and learning goals in a easy to follow, entertaining way.
• If you really want to underscore active learning and are comfortable with collaboration, you may wish to build parts of your syllabus with the students on the first day. This may include creating assignments, rubrics and grading expectations together. I would recommend this only for experienced teachers.

Other Tips:

Always build in an activity to help students get to know you and one another. It doesn’t have to be a formal ice breaker activity and may even include some informal chat time. At the very least, have students introduce one another.

If you have extra time, use it to further frame the course. Always have a short assignment available just in case you have extra time left over after the syllabus review and introductions. It should not be a full lesson but rather something quick that introduces a thread that can be easily picked up and developed into a more fleshed out lesson in the next class session.

Further Reading:

• Huston, Therese. Teaching What You Don’t Know. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009. Appendix C includes examples of a “Student Group Syllabus Review.“
• Couros, Alec. “10 Ideas for Classroom Video Projects.” Open Thinking.http://educationaltechnology.ca/couros/2127
  Number 6 on Couros’ list introduces the course trailer and provides an example. The other 9 items on the list might be helpful for generating ideas for the course trailer.
• Leahy, R. Conducting writing assignments. College Teaching, 50.2 (2002): 50 – 54. This article includes suggestions on how to create course materials with student collaboration.

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From my childhood I remember going to my elementary school with my mom a day or two before the start of the new academic year where we’d excitedly find out who would be my new teacher. With either joy or anxiety and we’d would head off to meet the teacher and wander around the new classroom for the first time. Checking out the whole class and chasing friends around, I quickly imagined what the new school year had in store for all of us, each respectively wading through a similar mix of emotions and anticipation that night. This initial encounter of teacher and classroom set the emotional stage for my classmates and me as our summer vacation officially came to an end. We’d either be eager and willing to head off for the first day of school, or perhaps unconsciously implore ourselves to stay under the comfort of our bed covers as long as we could! Ahh those memories…

So fast forwarding to the college campus, we can ask whether these emotional sensitivities are any different for a college student when they face their new courses and instructors for the first time. How does your first impression impact your students and how do you make the most of it? Since your syllabus is often available prior to the first day of class, let’s look at how its initial impression can set the stage for a warm and positive experience in your class.

Motivational Language and Tone

Much has been written and discussed about contents and functions of the syllabi. Traditionally. a syllabus may initially introduce the course to student through conveying learning objectives and goals, future content, and needed operational logistics. It can also function as a student contract while at the same time providing the institute a record of a course being taught. Additionally, syllabus types can range from more traditional, instructor-centered to a learner-centered style. No matter what type of syllabus you create and use, one underlying area that receives less attention is its projected tone. A positive, friendly tone may help cultivate a better student-instructor relationship and thus better overall course experience for students.

Syllabus Expression

If you are looking to make changes in your syllabus for the next offering of your class, Maryellen Weimer proposes some questions to consider if you seek to project warmth and enthusiasm for your course. In part she suggests you ask yourself:

1. Does my syllabus convey the excitement, intrigue and wonder that’s inherently a part of the content you teach?
2. Does my syllabus indicate that all the decisions about the course have been made?
3. Is it full of strongly worded directives or friendly in nature?
4. Is the focus on what students will be learning or on all those various things that they should and shouldn’t be doing?

These questions can provide a good primary lens when initially reviewing and revising your existing syllabus. But what prominent characteristics are best to concentrate on in creating that warm and inviting syllabus? Consider these six areas to address:

• Positive or Friendly Language – will help the students feel comfortable and welcome, especially when reading the syllabus in advance of your first class.
• Rationale for Assignments – will help motivate students by clarifying how each assignment relates to your course goals.
• Self-Disclosure – sharing a personal experience or perspective can provide insight into an instructor’s interpersonal style.
• Humor – not taking yourself seriously can help with tone, but use caution as humor can be tricky and requires discretion at times.
• Compassion – perhaps best conveyed in your attendance policy when dealing with the unexpected life events.
• Enthusiasm – choose language that shows your passion for teaching and for your subject matter.

First impressions of you and your course can have the same emotional impact on students as they perhaps did during those early days of elementary school. Students want to come to a class and feel welcomed by the instructor and this can start with a positive and warm reaction from the first review of your syllabus. So as you prepare for your classes, what does your syllabus say about you, your teaching style, expectations, or personality? What message does it send about the “feel” of the course and what does its tone say to the students? Make that first impression matter!

For samples of exemplary syllabi please check out the Society for Teaching Psychology website’s Project Syllabi.

As we wrap up another semester, now is a great time to think about what you can do during the summer to prepare for fall classes and to continue developing as a teacher. As part of these preparations, the Kaneb Center invites you to take advantage of the following resources:

• Summer Reading Groups. The Kaneb Center purchases books on teaching and learning in higher education for small informal reading groups. Faculty, teaching assistants, and postdoctoral scholars are invited to sign up for one of the prearranged summer reading groups or propose their own group. These groups are an excellent chance to talk about teaching and learning with colleagues and to meet new friends interested in pedagogy.
• Pedagogy Journal Group. Our pedagogy journal group, which meets to discuss journal articles related to various teaching and learning topics, will resume later in the summer. Meeting times will be announced according to participant availability. To be added to the email list for the journal group, send an email to Rachel Banke. Examples of past readings can be found here. All are welcome!
• Graduate Education (GRED) Courses. Short credit-bearing summer courses on teaching and learning in various fields are available to all graduate students. Enrollment is now open, and be sure to submit a tuition waiver online. Contact Joanna Sherbun with any questions.
• Individual Consultations. Schedule a one-on-one (confidential) consultation with a member of the Kaneb Center staff to discuss any teaching needs. We are happy to help you review CIFs, discuss your course plans for the fall, develop new types of assessments or other learning activities, or consider the integration of technology into your course.
• Kaneb Center Library. The Kaneb Center library holds hundreds of books, videos, and other materials on a variety of teaching and learning topics. Visit our library and check out some great selections for your summer reading!

We wish you a happy and productive summer, and as always, please drop by or let us know if we can be of assistance for any of your teaching needs!

It’s hard to believe that it’s already May and that the semester is coming to a close. As we are all preparing for the final stretch and, hopefully, preparing for some well-earned relaxation over the break, I want to suggest that we all take this time to reflect on our teaching over this semester, while it’s still fresh in our minds.

In an ideal world, we should all be keeping some type of teaching log in which we routinely write down our post-class thoughts. If you do not currently do this, I highly suggest that you add it to your agenda in the future. Entries do not have to be extensive but should at the very least capture elements of each class period that you found to be effective and at least one thing you might change in the future. In addition to reflecting on your own teaching you should also be periodically eliciting evaluations and class reflections from students. This way you will have a clear snapshot of how that semester progressed and this will help you better prepare for future classes.

Whether you do keep a teaching journal or not, I recommend that you take this final week to reflect upon and synthesize your thoughts about your classes this semester. The week of finals is actually a perfect time to engage in this activity because the class sessions are still fresh in your mind. Ask yourself substantive questions and try and answer them as honestly as possible.

Possible Questions might look something like the following:

• What was your favorite teaching moment this semester and why? What do you think made this moment so memorable?
• Were there any particular classes or assignments that you can remember students struggling with? If so, how might you strengthen this specific assignment or lesson plan for the future?
• Did you attend any teaching workshops or have any conversations with fellow teachers that inspired you to try something new (i.e. a specific piece of technology, a campus resource, a unique grading rubric, etc.)? List these items.

The worst feeling is starting a new semester after having finely tuned your syllabus and lessons plans over the previous few weeks and then suddenly remembering that you had wanted to try that new discussion tool you had heard such good things about the previous semester but had forgotten about over the break. We all forget, especially after a stressful semester of teaching and grading. That’s why it is so important to just get your thoughts out now. That way, you will not have to worry about keeping it all in your head all summer.

Keeping a teaching log and writing a more comprehensive reflection of the semester before the break begins is also a good way to gather material for a teaching portfolio. Participating in these reflective exercises will also help you become a lot more conscious of your unique methods and teaching style.

Resources

An article from Western University in Ontario, Canada on how to build reflection time into the summer months: https://www.uwo.ca/tsc/resources/publications/newsletter/selected_articles/looking_backward_to_move_your_courses_forward.html

A previous blog post of mine that stresses the importance of student evaluations for teaching effectiveness: http://sites.nd.edu/kaneb/2016/02/01/eliciting-student-feedback/

Conflict is a natural part of social interactions, and thus it is no surprise that conflict occasionally arises in the classroom. Ranging from a minor disagreement about grades to more disruptive instances, we typically think of conflict as something to be avoided in the course of teaching and learning. On the other hand, what would a classroom discussion or debate be like if there were not differing points of view? In practice, conflict ranges on a spectrum from destructive (e.g. fighting in class) to constructive (a learning opportunity).
This post offers five broad tips for preventing or responding to destructive conflict and encouraging constructive conflict.

1. The first step toward a productive handling of conflict is to understand your own natural conflict tendencies. Different individuals experience conflict in a variety of ways (becoming defensive, avoiding it altogether, etc.), and our own experiences may differ depending on the context of the conflictual encounter. Before taking action, it is helpful to consider the biases and experiences you have that might influence your judgment in a particular instance. Understanding your own tendencies before conflict arises can help prepare you to manage conflict in a healthy manner.
2. One important way to prevent destructive conflict is to ensure you create a safe and welcoming classroom environment from the first day. In your syllabus, you may wish to include an inclusivity statement that reflects a commitment to valuing different perspectives and opinions. This sets the tone for how you expect the class to behave and function. In other syllabus policies, be as clear as possible to avoid confusion in how they should be interpreted. Additionally, spend time getting to know students and be open to any concerns they may have. If students know and respect you and the other students, they are more likely to respond to conflict in a constructive way.
3. In addition to statements in the syllabus, try to involve students in constructing the ground rules for class discussion or working in groups. This encourages students to think about how healthy discussions or group work occur and how they would like to be treated by their fellow students. Writing ground rules can be done at the start of the semester or before the first discussion or group assignment. Be sure to remind students of the rules they established; some professors even ask everyone to sign a contract agreeing to the ground rules established by the class. Should conflict arise, you then have a common agreement to utilize to restore a healthy environment.
4. Think about how you approach potentially sensitive subjects in your course. If a certain topic may divide your students, consider addressing it later in the semester after students have had a chance to form relationships and work together on other, less sensitive subjects. As the topic approaches, start by discussing the issue broadly before asking for students’ personal opinions. Alternatively, consider using a debate to encourage students to examine both sides of the issue and support their opinion with facts and evidence rather than emotions. In sum, plan to build up to the subject and prepare students for the discussion ahead of time.
5. If destructive conflict does occur in class, always try to use it for constructive means. First, think about who is harmed or affected by the conflict and be sure to include them in the solution. Here are a few common techniques to use at contentious points in the class:
   • State the problem you have identified and caution the whole class, rather than directing your comments to a particular student. For example, you could state: “This discussion appears to have crossed more into personal opinions than a discussion of the assigned reading. While those opinions are valued, let’s try to frame them in light of the evidence from the text.”
   • If the conflict is disruptive, ask students to step back and think about what happened and write down their reaction or thoughts. Ask students what they learned from a particular moment and whether the conflict is reflective of a larger issue.
   • If a student raises an unpopular opinion, open up the point for further discussion. Suggest that others likely hold that position, and ask students to explore why some people hold a particular position while others hold different ones.
   • If one or a few students are the source of the disruption, ask them to discuss the issue with you after class or in office hours.
   • If you are unable to appropriately diffuse a situation, tell students that it is important and you will return to it at a different time. This allows time for tempers to cool and for you to come up with an appropriate response.
   • Finally, if a situation cannot be used constructively and impedes your ability to conduct the class, you may ask a student if they need time to cool down outside of the classroom. Follow up with the student later on, and recommend other wellness resources if necessary.

These are just a few strategies you can use to address broad conflict situations. If a conflict arises in your class, utilize the resources available to you to ensure that it is handled appropriately. Reach out to your departmental administration, a faculty mentor, or other offices on campus. Remember that it is possible to shift conflict from a destructive moment to a constructive learning exercise, so be proactive in repairing any harm done. And even before conflict occurs, do what you can to prepare yourself and your students to respond to conflict in a healthy manner.

Additional Resources

• Kaneb Center handout and resources on “Conflict in the Classroom”
• “Making the Most of ‘Hot Moments’ in the Classroom” – University of Michigan CRLT
• “Managing Hot Moments in the Classroom” – Lee Warren
• “Creating a Positive Classroom Environment for Diversity” – Juan C. Garibay
• “Creating Inclusive Learning Environments” – University of Arizona