Notes on Teaching and Learning

Now that you’re getting to know your students, and their learning habits, on an individual level, it’s a good time to think about how you can foster equitable participation in your course. If you’ve noticed imbalances in your students’ participation levels, it’s best to address those imbalances now, before they become ingrained in your classroom culture. What follows are some tips on how to make sure every student is included in your class discussions and activities. 

Build relationships in the classroom: Students learn better and are more likely to participate if they have made personal connections with their instructor and classmates. Continue to prioritize activities that will build relationships among students, and try to connect with students on a personal level. Learn students’ names and use them in class discussion. (If you have a larger class, consider using name tents.) Take the time to individually congratulate a student who made a perceptive comment; to encourage a quiet student by validating their contributions; or to reach out to a student who seems to be struggling. 

Create an inclusive climate: Students are more likely to participate well in an environment where they feel comfortable. Make sure students know not only that their contributions are valued, but also that variety in student perspectives is welcome and encouraged. Ensure that many different voices are being represented in class discussion, and be aware of how the racial and socioeconomic makeup of your course could affect the dynamics of participation. Take the time to learn about experiences like imposter syndrome and stereotype threat that may limit students’ participation. The more you know about these student struggles, the better you’ll be able to address them.

Democratize the discussion: Large-group discussion is a great way to learn, but it is not equally effective for every student–particularly those students who appreciate the time to formulate their ideas before sharing them. Try breaking up large discussions with think-pair-share activities, small-group work, and time for students to brainstorm or freewrite. If certain students consistently dominate the conversation, consider creating an ultra-structured class discussion that limits who can speak at what time. 

Ask students to assess participation: Consider soliciting anonymous feedback at midterm about the classroom climate and the extent to which students feel their contributions are welcome or valued. You might also ask students periodically to reflect on and assess their own participation, as a way of encouraging more intentional engagement in classroom activities. 

Helping students develop the habits of good participation is an important part of any successful course. Start your semester on the right foot by building an inclusive classroom that allows each student to participate fully in course discussions and activities. 

Additional Resources

Stephen D. Brookfield and Stephen Preskill, Discussion as a Way of Teaching: Tools and Techniques for Democratic Classrooms

Center for Research on Teaching and Learning, the University of Michigan, “Creating Inclusive College Classrooms”

Harriet W. Sheridan Center for Teaching and Learning, Brown, “Fostering and assessing equitable classroom participation”

Jay R. Howard, “How to Hold a Better Class Discussion”

Jay R. Howard, Discussion in the College Classroom: Getting Your Students Engaged and Participating in Person and Online 

Poorvu Center for Teaching and Learning, Yale, “Inclusive Teaching Strategies”

Kelly A. Roca, “Student Participation in the College Classroom: An Extended Multidisciplinary Literature Review”

Viji Sathy and Kelly A. Hogan, “Want to Reach All of Your Students? Here’s How to Make Your Teaching More Inclusive”

 Robert J. Sidelinger and Melanie Booth-Butterfield, “Co-constructing Student Involvement: An Examination of Teacher Confirmation and Student-to-Student Connectedness in the College Classroom”

Kimberly D. Tanner, “Structure Matters: Twenty-One Teaching Strategies to Promote Student Engagement and Cultivate Classroom Equity”

Thomas J. Tobin and Kirsten T. Behling, Reach Everyone, Teach Everyone: Universal Design for Learning in Higher Education

Ready or not, the beginning of a new semester is upon us! Have you ever noticed that most students settle into the pattern of returning to the same seats, classday after class day, throughout the semester, even though they chose them randomly on the first day of class? One of the reasons for this is that humans are creatures of habit who tend to gravitate toward the familiar. This underscores the importance of making sure the “familiar” is an environment that is conducive to learning. The beginning of the semester is an especially pivotal time for instructors and TAs to establish expectations for their interactions with their students. Doing so can help us to intentionally establish productive habits rather than falling into potentially detrimental ones. It can also preemptively clear up sources of miscommunication—and the mistrust that such can foment—between instructors and their students.

Establishing expectations need not be daunting. Often, it primarily requires taking the time to think through what your goals are for a course and then identifying the support structures that need to be in place to accomplish those goals. After doing so, it would be a good idea to clarify the following for your students:

• What can your students expect from you? 
  • How promptly will you start class? 
  • What is the best way for them to communicate with you? How soon should they expect you to reply?
  • What types of assignments will you give? How will you evaluate those assignments?

• What do you expect from your students? 
  • How do you expect them to behave in class?
  • What are your expectations for student participation? (And how will you evaluate their participation?)
  • How much time do you expect them to spend on homework each week? 
  • What should they do if they need help?

• What are your policies regarding:
  • Attendance?
  • Tardiness?
  • Eating in class?
  • Using electronics in class?
  • Recording class?
  • Late work?
  • Missing assignments?
  • Missed exams?

In many cases, it will be ideal to clarify these expectations in writing in the course syllabus from the beginning of the semester. If you are TAing, consider developing a policy sheet with expectations that are specific to your section. In addition to this, it may also be helpful to facilitate a conversation about them on the first day of class. And even if the first day of class has already come and gone, it’s not too late! It would likely still be a good idea to distribute written expectations and dedicate some class time to facilitating a conversation about them. It may even be preferable to begin by facilitating a conversation about expectations, and draft the written list of expectations based on it. In either case, intentionally establishing expectations from the beginning of the semester is likely to yield benefits that make doing so well worth the effort.

Resource

Carnegie Mellon University. “Examples: Course Policies/Expectations.” Eberly Center. Accessed January 17, 2020. https://www.cmu.edu/teaching/designteach/design/syllabus/samples-policiesexpectations/. 

Preparing for a new semester can be daunting, but dedicating some time to our teaching assistants (TAs) can be one of the most effective ways to save time and headache throughout the entirety of a course. We often overlook this support staff in favor of our own, more direct, preparatory responsibilities; however, an effective TA can be one of our most valuable resources. Below are some thoughts to consider as you schedule your first meeting with your TA. For you TAs out there, stay tuned for a companion post from the TA perspective (to be published later this semester).

Clear and Specific Communication

Whatever you do, do NOT assume that your TA knows what he/she is doing, even if they never reach out to ask. Often times it is the TA who is waiting for you to reach out with a list of responsibilities and duties. Discuss topics such as: main responsibilities (i.e., grading, office hours, guest lectures, etc.), relevant course policies (i.e., attendance, late assignment, and re-grades), course learning goals, student resources, additional TA resources, etc. It is also a good idea to ask your TA what he/she expects from the experience. Is there something he/she would like to get out of the semester for his/her own benefit. For example, some TA’s would love the opportunity to guest lecture, lead a discussion section, or obtain CIF’s for their future CV. Meeting before the semester starts and being open to their own desires can help foster a relationship built on mutual trust and respect.

Interactions in the Class

Having your TA active throughout aspects of the course empowers them and helps foster an engaging environment. It shows your students that you trust the TA, and that you want him/her to be an integral component to the class. It also helps the TA and students to build relationships which can help student attendance at TA office hours, recitations, discussion sections, etc. Lastly, frequent TA interactions foster peer learning between the students and TA, especially when the TA is also an undergraduate.

Build on your TA’s Strengths

Asking your TA about his/her strengths, skills, and interests will enable you to build upon those talents, and make the most of them. Knowing this information can help you structure their involvement to everyone’s benefit. It is also worth noting that many TAs, especially graduate students, have very valuable transferable skills such as problem-solving and critical-thinking abilities.

Provide Feedback

Everyone benefits from feedback, especially regarding teaching. Provide your TA with details about things that are going well. Do your best to remain positive and give clear requests. Constructive feedback, which helps your TA see the bigger picture of what you are trying to achieve, is most beneficial. If you are able to do so, ask your TA for his/her own feedback of yourself. Again, this can empower them in their teaching and foster mutual respect/trust.

These are just a few tips to help you and your TA get off on the right foot towards a successful semester. Stay tuned for a similar blog focusing on this topic from the TA perspective (to be published later this semester).

References

[1] How to Work With Your Teaching Assistant: It’s a Double Act. https://www.theguardian.com/teacher-network/teacher-blog/2013/sep/03/how-to-work-with-teaching-assistant

[2] Webster R., Russell A., Blatchford P., (2012).  Maximising the Impact of Teaching Assistants: Guidance for school leaders and teachers

Submitted by:

Carson Running

Ph.D. Candidate, Aerospace Engineering

University of Notre Dame

This is the fourth and final installment in our series on teaching controversial topics. In the first, we considered two reasons to teach controversial topics and three frameworks with which to do so. The second addressed how to develop a conducive classroom environment by building relationships with students and preparing to draft ground rules for discussion. The third concerned why and how to involve students in the creation of ground rules, some suggested ground rules, and how to use ground rules. 

This month, we turn to some tips for facilitating discussion of controversial topics. Implementing the following strategies can foster discussions that are more productive and civil.

Provide a Common Basis for Understanding to help Focus the Discussion

To do this, you might:

• Assign readings
• Show a video clip
• Have students review material immediately before the discussion
• Create a list of things students would like the discussion to take into consideration

Begin the Discussion by Stating its Purpose

Stating the purpose provides a touchstone with which students can evaluate how to contribute to the discussion. It can also serve as a point for instructors to reference as they guide the discussion. Examples include:

• Promote critical thinking by helping students understand the complexity of the issues
• Increase awareness by providing information that is typically not addressed
• Improve dialogue skills that students can use in other venues
• Connect the topic with students’ roles and responsibilities outside the classroom

Structure the Discussion to Include Everyone

Strategies for doing this include:

• The Round: Ask a guiding question and give every student an opportunity to respond without any interruptions or comments. Offer the option to pass. Discuss responses after the round.
• Think-Pair-Share: Ask a question and give students a few minutes to respond individually in writing. Then assign partners and give explicit directions for discussion, such as “Tell each other why you wrote what you did.” After a specified amount of time, reconvene the class and debrief. 
• Reflection Memos: Prior to class, have students write a reflection in response to some question(s) you pose. Ask them to read their memos in pairs, small groups, or to the entire class. 

Maintain the Focus and Flow of the Discussion

Begin with clear, open-ended yet bounded questions. Questions to avoid include: 

• Double-Barreled: pose two questions simultaneously
• Hide the Ball: search for a specific answer
• Short Factual or Yes/No: can be addressed summarily

Prepare questions to break the silence:

• “What makes this hard to discuss?”
• “What needs to be clarified at this point?”

Maintain the focus

• Ask probing questions to prompt students to provide more information, clarify, elaborate, or explain.
• Remind the class of the readings or discussion objectives to redirect the discussion to its intended purpose
• Validate important but extraneous input by redirecting the focus and mentioning them at the end of the discussion as points to consider

Be an active facilitator, but don’t take too much control. As necessary:

• Reword questions
• Correct misinformation
• Reference relevant materials
• Ask for clarification
• Review main points

Facilitate a Wrap-up 

Students are more likely to feel that a discussion was worthwhile if the instructor facilitates—with class input—a synthesis of key issues addressed. It can be helpful to generate a public written list. 

In addition, to get student feedback and identify issues to address later, save the last five minutes of class for students to write a Minute Paper on questions such as the following. Be sure to review responses and debrief them  in the next class.

• “What are the three most important points you learned today?”
• “What important questions remain unanswered for you?”
• “What did you learn specifically from what someone else said that you would not have thought of on your own?”

While discussing controversial topics will likely always be challenging, implementing the strategies outlined in this four-part series can help make doing so more pleasant and productive for everyone involved. 

References

“Guidelines for Discussing Difficult or Controversial Topics.” Center for Research on Learning and Teaching. University of Michigan. Accessed December 6, 2019. http://www.crlt.umich.edu/publinks/generalguidelines. 

This is the third installment in our series on teaching controversial topics. In the first installment, we considered two reasons to teach controversial topic and three frameworks with which to do so. The second installment addressed how to develop a conducive classroom environment by building relationships with students and preparing to draft ground rules for discussion. This month’s post addresses why and how to involve students in the creation of ground rules, some suggested ground rules, and how to use ground rules.

Involving Students

Ground rules are expectations for conduct.[1] Instructors may create them independently or involve students in the process of creating them. Including students in the process is a good idea because it may help them:[2]

• Feel Valued
• Understand the Power of Collaboration
• Clearly Understand Expectations

In Discussion as a Way of Teaching Brookfield and Preskill suggest a way to involve students in creating ground rules. Ask students:

1. To identify the best and worst classes in which they have participated.
2. To reflect on what made them so.
3. For three things that students could do to help create such an environment.

Suggested Ground Rules

Then, use their suggestions to draft a list of guidelines. You may want to ensure that some of the following make it on your list:[3]

• Only make a statement if you are willing to say it directly to someone to whom it matters a great deal.
• Listen actively and respectfully.
• Seek to include everyone in the conversation. If you tend to talk a lot, leave space for others. If you tend to stay quiet, contribute so others can learn from you.
• Whenever possible, support assertions with evidence.
• Cultivate “tentativeness.”
• Critique ideas, not people.
• Expect others to have different experiences and perspectives.
• Seek to learn rather than to debate or persuade.
• Be willing to change your perspective based on what you learn.
• Think critically about why you believe what you do.
• Avoid blame, speculation, and inflammatory language.
• Don’t interrupt.
• Don’t assume things about classmates or ask them to speak for their (perceived) social group(s).
• Expect mistakes. Seek to see them as a valuable part of the learning process.
• If you learn that something you said negatively affected others, seek to learn how you can do better in the future.

How to Use Ground Rules

Here are some ways to use the list of ground rules you generate:[4]

• Discuss them on the first day of class.
• Post them around the classroom.
• Distribute hard copies to students.
• Put them on your syllabus or add them to your course website.
• Strategically remind your class of them before sensitive conversations.
• Refer to them when people violate the ground rules.
• Ask students to read them aloud as a reminder of your agreements.
• Re-evaluate them periodically to see if the class has suggestions for revisions.
• Use them as a reference point for students to self-assess their participation. (e.g., “How have I contributed positively to the sort of learning environment described in our discussion guidelines?”, “Where can I grow as a contributor?”, or “How well have we as a class been abiding by these agreements?”
• Use them as a starting point for developing guidelines the next time you teach the class. (Ask students what they want to keep and what they want to amend.)

These strategies can go a long way toward increasing student buy-in for ground rules, which are an important aspect of creating a classroom environment conducive to engaging with controversial topics. Next month, we’ll explore some tips for facilitating discussions of controversial topics.

[1] Carnegie Mellon University’s Eberly Center for Teaching Excellence’s Ground Rules.

[2] The Art of Education University’s Create Your Classroom Rules WITH Your Students for a Powerful Start to the Year.

[3] Adapted from Yale University’s Poorvu Center for Teaching and Learning Teaching Controversial Topics and the University of Michigan’s Center for Research on Learning and Teaching Guidelines for Discussing Difficult or Controversial Topics and Guidelines for Classroom Interactions.

[4] Adapted from Southern Illinois University Edwardsville Center for Faculty Development and Innovation Classroom Ground Rules and the University of Michigan’s Center for Research on Learning and Teaching Guidelines for Classroom Interactions.

References

Brookfield, Stephen D., and Stephen Preskill. Discussion as a Way of Teaching Tools and Techniques for Democratic Classrooms. Hoboken: Wiley, 2012.

“Classroom Ground Rules.” Center for Faculty Development and Innovation. Southern Illinois University Edwardsville. Accessed October 18, 2019. https://www.siue.edu/facultycenter/services_resources/teaching/Ground_Rules.shtml.

“Ground Rules.” Eberly Center for Teaching Excellence. Carnegie Mellon University. Accessed October 18, 2019. https://www.cmu.edu/teaching/solveproblem/strat-dontparticipate/groundrules.pdf.

“Guidelines for Classroom Interactions.” Center for Research on Learning and Teaching. University of Michigan. Accessed October 18, 2019. http://www.crlt.umich.edu/examples-discussion-guidelines.

“Guidelines for Discussing Difficult or Controversial Topics.” Center for Research on Learning and Teaching. University of Michigan. Accessed October 18, 2019. http://www.crlt.umich.edu/publinks/generalguidelines.

Harmon, Wynita. “Create Your Classroom Rules WITH Your Students for a Powerful Start to the Year.”  The Art of Education University, August 3, 2017. https://theartofeducation.edu/2017/08/08/3-benefits-creating-classroom-expectations-students/.

“Teaching Controversial Topics.” Poorvu Center for Teaching and Learning. Yale University. Accessed October 18, 2019. https://poorvucenter.yale.edu/teaching/ideas-teaching/teaching-controversial-topics.

Checking student understanding is essential for effective teaching. Do your students have preconceived notions of a topic? Are they following your lecture? Do they understand the connection between this topic and your course goals? There are many ways to evaluate student understanding (through assignments, projects, or exams), but I encourage you to check student understanding during the learning process.

A great, quick way to check comprehension is to poll your students. Below I have compiled a list of tried and true polling techniques.

1. Show of Hands

You don’t need fancy technology to get instant feedback in class. A simple “Raise your hand if you have heard of this concept before” or “Raise your hand if you agree with this statement” can go a long way.

Advantage(s): no preparation, no cost

Disadvantage(s): not anonymous, binary response (yes/no, true/false)

2. Student Response Cards

This is such an easy, brilliant system for multiple responses. At the beginning of the semester, hand out colored post-it notes or labeled index cards to each student. During class, pose a multiple choice question and assign each answer a color. Students then simultaneously raise their response cards and you immediately have a pulse of the class.

Advantage(s): minimal preparation, multiple-choice

Disadvantage(s): not anonymous

3. Poll Everywhere

Poll Everywhere is a web-based response system. You create questions online (multiple choice, open response, live word clouds, clickable images, up- and down-voting for Q&A, and rank order) and students respond by visiting a website or texting a number on their phones.

Advantage(s): multiple question/response types, can be anonymous, results updated live, can integrate into PowerPoint, Keynote, and Google Slides

Disadvantage(s): students need phone access, free version capacity is 25 responses (contact Kevin Abbott if you would like to implement Poll Everywhere in a larger class)

4. Kahoot

Looking to liven up the classroom? Kahoot is a game-based learning platform that turns concept quizzes into a competition. With music, points, and rankings, Kahoot is ideal for social learning or review questions.

Advantage(s): game-like features haven proven popular among students

Disadvantage(s): with emphasis placed on answering quickly and winning, kahoot is not ideal for higher-level thinking or collaboration

5. Plickers

Originally created for K-12 teachers, Plickers is unique because it combines student response cards with technology. At the beginning of the semester, each student is given a unique Plickers card (with a machine-scannable image that looks like a QR code). Each side of the square card corresponds to a letter A, B, C, or D. When prompted, students hold up and rotate the card to put their chosen answer on top. The instructor then uses the Plickers app on a mobile device to scan the room and compile the responses.

Advantage(s): great for polling in classrooms where students don’t have personal devices, inclusive, free

Disadvantage(s): lost or mixed up cards, limited to multiple choice responses

Done well, polling students during class can increase student engagement and comprehension. If you would like more information about polling (effectiveness, examples of questions and teaching activities, how to get started, etc.), see the additional resources below.

Additional Resources:

1. Other Student Response Systems
2. Getting Started with Poll Everywhere
3. Teaching with Classroom Response Systems: Creating Active Learning Environments
4. Multiple-Choice Questions You Wouldn’t Put on a Test: Promoting Deep Learning Using Clickers

As we leave fall break and Daylight Savings Time behind, and look forward to Thanksgiving break and the end of the year, you may find that your students’ motivation is flagging. This is a good time to take stock of the plans you have for the remainder of your course and to think about ways to keep students engaged and inspired through the end of the semester.

Motivation is a complex phenomenon, but psychologists have broken it down into broad two categories: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. In education, extrinsic motivators include external rewards like grades and are related to the expectations of instructors, peers, and parents. Intrinsic motivators, by contrast, are related to the student’s own expectations and may include things like interest in the subject matter or a sense that what students are studying is relevant to their lives. Our classes are full of, and necessarily organized around, extrinsic motivators. But fostering intrinsic motivation is a key part of helping students reach their full potential.

One good way to increase intrinsic motivation is to promote student autonomy. When students feel ownership over their learning and a sense of empowerment in the classroom, they not only perform better on assigned tasks but also leave the course with a greater sense of satisfaction and a good deal of knowledge that will stick with them long past the final exam.

So, how can you increase students’ autonomy in your classes? One way is to treat students as active collaborators in the production of knowledge rather than passive receivers of it. Encourage students to see themselves as developing experts by asking them to explain concepts; engaging them in problem-solving or inquiry-based activities; encouraging multiple opinions and approaches; and allowing them to generate their own discussion questions or to take control of class conversation in some way.

You can also promote student autonomy by giving students meaningful control over the learning process. Consider your activities and assignments for the remainder of the semester: is there any way to incorporate student choice (within reasonable parameters) into those assignments or activities without making major changes? For example, you might let students choose their own topic for a final project, perhaps working from a list of approved topics you compile. You could likewise involve the students in creating the assessment criteria for such an assignment. You might also let students choose the topic of discussion, or the means by which that discussion is conducted, for one or two class days. Allowing your students to make these kinds of choices can increase both their investment in the course and their motivation to finish the semester strong.

Finally, you can help foster student autonomy by avoiding or deemphasizing external rewards and punishments. While extrinsic motivators have their place, psychological studies have shown that offering extrinsic rewards can actually decrease people’s intrinsic motivation. A key part of developing student autonomy is helping your students see the value not in the rewards system of the class but in the subject matter itself. Giving students the freedom and the tools to interest themselves in course content is one good way to beat the mid-semester slump.

Further Reading

Crone, I. & MacKay, C. (2007). Motivating today’s college students. Peer Review 9.

Garcia, Teresa & Pintrich, Paul R. (1996). The effects of autonomy on motivation and performance in the college classroom. Contemporary Educational Psychology 21, 477-486.

Gorham, J. & Millette, D.M. (1997). A Comparative Analysis of Teacher and Student Perceptions of Sources of Motivation and Demotivation in College Classes. Communication Education 46, 245- 61.

Lowman, J. (1990). Promoting motivation and learning. College Teaching 38, 136-140.

Motivating Students, Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching.

Niemiec, Christopher P. and Ryan, Richard M. (2009). Autonomy, competence, and relatedness in the classroom: Applying self-determination theory to educational practice. Theory and Research in Education 7, 133-144.

Stefanou, Candice R., Perecevich, Kathleen C., DiCintio, Matthew, & Turner, Julianne C. (2004). Supporting autonomy in the classroom: Ways teachers encourage student decision-making and ownership. Educational Psychologist 39, 97-110.

Kaneb Center Resources

Fostering Student Motivation Through Instruction

Motivation and Learning

Keeping Students Motivated

Research on flipped-learning – the concept where first exposure to new material is done outside of class while applied learning activities and higher-order thinking is conducted in class – is expanding at an incredible pace. The goal of this post is to give a qualitative overview of  what the current literature does and does not say about flipped learning. Much of this work will reference studies and literature reviews conducted by Robert Talbert at Grand Valley State University, a prominent scholar in the field [1,2] (also see Refs. [3] and [4] for more in-depth definitions of flipped learning). 

Flipped-learning research has grown by approximately 60% each year since 2012 [2]. Most of it is conducted by faculty members who are using flipped learning in their own teaching, which means that the research is never far removed from the actual classroom experience. However, it also means that the authors are often not specialized in educational research and that the scope of the research is usually limited. In addition, the success of the techniques is often determined by course/exam grades, which are not necessarily the best metrics of learning. The other common measure is student surveys designed by the researchers for a particular study. More use of validated survey instruments would be better, more consistent, metrics to implement moving forward.

So, what does the literature say? In general, students in flipped-learning environments achieve higher scores than students in traditional settings, or else the differences are not statistically significant. These two outcomes seem to be about equally as common. Only rarely do you see students in flipped learning environments perform significantly worse. One of the most consistent results in the literature is that flipped learning is strongly correlated with improved class-meeting attendance; however, data on whether students actually partake in the pre-class activities are mixed and vary widely. The literature also indicates that students tend to show higher satisfaction with flipped learning compared to traditional methods; however, these positive views only tend to sink in over time. Frequent and transparent communication with students seems to be critical with regards to this topic.

The literature, or lack of literature, does not indicate any significant effect of: whether the course being flipped is introductory vs. advanced, whether the course is undergraduate vs. graduate, whether the number of students is small vs. large, whether all of the course is flipped vs. only part of it, or whether videos are used vs. not.

As the use of, and research regarding flipped learning continues to grow, many of these questions will inevitably be answered to a fuller degree. This means that the literature on the subject up to this point should certainly not be viewed as conclusive. However, this short article serves as a convenient recap for those thinking about implementing such techniques in the semesters to come.

References

[1] Talbert, R. (2017). Flipped Learning : a Guide for Higher Education Faculty. Sterling, Virginia : Stylus Publishing, LLC, 2017.

[2] Talbert, R. (2018). What Does the Research Say About Flipped Learning. http://rtalbert.org/what-does-the-research-say/

[3] O’Flaherty, J., & Phillips, C. (2015). The use of flipped classrooms in higher education: A scoping review. Internet and Higher Education, 25, 85–95.

[4] Bishop, J., & Verleger, M. (2013). The Flipped Classroom : A Survey of the Research. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the American Society for Engineering Education, 6219.

Submitted by:

Carson Running

Ph.D. Candidate, Aerospace Engineering

University of Notre Dame