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Planting Seeds of Wonder: Local Farming, Regional Agrotourism and the Enchanted Orchard Renaissance Faire

Recently, I composed a blog on my role as playwright, academic consultant and creative & theatrical director of two recent Renaissance faires, and I then followed up with a blog centered on the community spirit that imbued our first faire, Wyndonshire Renaissance Faire. This blog will take the second of our inaugural 2024 spring faires, Enchanted Orchard Renaissance Faire, as the topic of discussion, and continue discussion of the community efforts that went into putting this event together—at warp speed. In addition, I will discuss the educational and agricultural focus of this faire, which brought regional tourism to North Central Massachusetts and offered the opportunity to create a story that explores issues specific to local and sustainable farming. This year, Enchanted Orchard will commence in just a few weeks, on May 3rd and 4th 2025.

The Gate Leading to the Fantasy Realm of Enchanted Orchard at our inaugural Renaissance Faire, 2024.

As I mention in my previous blog, after building the creative team at Wyndonshire, because of some uncertainty with respect to funding the project by the town of Winchendon, my wife, Rajuli, and I reached out to a local farm and festival venue, Red Apple Farm, owned by Al and Nancy Rose, to see if they might be open to bringing a Renaissance Faire to their business in the event that we needed a change of venue. After pitching the project, the whole team at Red Apple Farm was excited for the prospect, and once Winchendon determined they were able to move forward with the project, we agreed to produce a second “sister” faire with Red Apple Farm, with characters and plot lines intersecting with those at Wyndonshire. I began to conceive of a second fantasy realm, the agrarian kingdom of Enchanted Orchard.

Rajuli and the Nagashri Dancers at Enchanted Orchard Renaissance Faire, 2024.

Rajuli’s and my ability to produce a second large-scale Renaissance Faire was only possible with the help of our team, what became FaeGuild Wonders, and Red Apple Farm, our incredible partnering venue.  Red Apple Farm embraced our vision and helped shape and grow Enchanted Orchard into the fabulous event that it was, ranked by a popular vlogger, Chelle Belle, as one of the best Renaissance Faire in New England last year (2024).  Al and Nancy Rose, the entrepreneurial owners behind the blooming success of Red Apple Farm, are some of the kindest and most collaborative people I’ve personally had the chance to partner with, and without their leadership, there would be no Enchanted Orchard (and for that matter, no NorthFolk Nightmarket). They partner with local businesses, and are committed to growing regional tourism and community, which is deeply embedded in their mission and the way they run their business.

Orchard Wizard (Richard Fahey) with the Stewards of the Orchard (Al & Nancy Rose) at Enchanted Orchard Renaissance Faire, 2024.

In addition to Al and Nancy Rose, our Orchard Stewards, Enchanted Orchard thrived because of many other members of the Red Apple Farm team, including Sarah McLennan (who coordinated vendors and helped organize the event), Kirsten Killay (who manages the Red Apple Farm Cidery), Loryn Killay (who spearheads marketing and promotion necessary to advertise the event) and the Sams—Samuel Miller and Samuel Dosset—who constructed the picturesque towering gate that leads into the fantasy kingdom of Enchanted Orchard.

Kristin Killay and Alicia Pelkey at the Red Apple Cidery also known as the “Toadstool Tavern” at Enchanted Orchard Renaissance Faire, 2024.

To further highlight the level of Red Apple Farm’s integration into the event, their Cidery–renamed the Toadstool Tavern for Enchanted Orchard–featured all the different flavors made specifically for the faire. Many of these ciders developed for the event are now standard or seasonal options available throughout the year at Red Apple Farm’s Cidery. Moreover, the cider is a connecting point for our events, as it is one of the main economic exports of the Enchanted Orchard kingdom, and it was available at Wyndonshire as well as an imported drink from their neighboring kingdom.

Mt. Witchusett Witches gather outside the Brew Barn at Red Apple Farm during Enchanted Orchard Renaissance Faire, 2024.

Red Apple Farm also collaborates with a local restaurant, the Gardner Ale House, which manages the Brew Barn at Red Apple Farm. The Brew Barn is a cozy, tavernesque restaurant on the farm, which serves food and drink, and was crucial for the success of Enchanted Orchard’s second day (Sunday, May 5th, 2024) when the rain threatened to drown out the event. Because of the Brew Barn’s openness to collaborating, we were able to pivot and move many performance acts inside and out of the inclement weather. Although this required a major reworking of the schedule, we did our best to make sure each performer or group had at least one indoor show in case they were rained out during their showtime. While the rain did put a damper on some performances, the event was sustained by adding outdoor fires throughout the faire and bringing many of the performances indoor and the event was a success. Despite the weather, the turnout and experience from patrons on the second day was extremely positive and this gave us the added benefit of a learning opportunity with respect to what to plan for in the case of inclement weather in future.

May Queen (Tammy Dykstra), Knight of the Tree (Quinne Richards) and the Orchard King (Paul Taft), Enchanted Orchard Renaissance Faire, 2024.

I wrote an entirely new script for this faire, which and last year’s story, “Seeds of Wonder,” was a prologue to the first act, “The Romance of the Orchard,” which will commence this year. Enchanted Orchard Renaissance Faire highlights sustainable farming which was the foundation of agrarian life in the medieval world. The major conflict in this faire centers on the issue of conservation versus preservation. This takes the form of a heated debate between the Enchant Orchard nobility with the May Queen (played by Tammy Dykstra and Siobhan Doherty) and Duke of Thorns (played by Dave Fournier) arguing for the protection of the Thornwood and the creatures that live there, who are part of the kingdom’s broader ecosystem. Alternatively, the Orchard King (played by Paul Taft and Gary Joiner) and Blossom Baroness (played by Jen Knight) contend that expanding the orchard would better provide for the people of the kingdom and foster economic growth for the realm while at the same time minimizing food insecurity throughout the kingdom. This tension is played out in both staged theatrical scenes and numerous immersive skits and side conversations had between members of the Enchanted Orchard nobility throughout the event.

Blueberry Princess (Melanie “Melegie” Long) and Prince of Leaves (Michael Barboza-McLean) reunite at Enchanted Orchard Renaissance Faire, 2024.

Toward this end, the Orchard King takes advantage of his royal authority to press upon the newly returned Prince of Leaves (played by Michael Barboza-McLean and Vajra Spring), advocating for the virtues of his proposed expansion of the orchard. Because the Prince of Leaves seems somewhat amenable to his ideas and influence, and seizing an opportunity to undercut the wishes of his rival, the May Queen, the Orchard King announces at the end of Enchanted Orchard’s annual Beltane Banquet, that he is betrothing his daughter, Blueberry Princess (Melanie “Melegie” Long), much to her sorrow and surprise, to his rival’s son, the Prince of Leaves, in an effort to “weave peace” in the realm and as a means to press his advantage on the young prince now enfianced to the heiress of the realm.

Knights of Lord Talbot’s Frank Walker and Cameron Hardy battle at the tournament melee in celebration of the Beltane Banquet at Enchanted Orchard, 2024.

However, because of the fast production of this faire, the script was centered primarily on the nobility, leaving many of the other characters to participate in a highly immersive and interactive character scavenger hunt, which invited patrons to find and receive specific items from cast members in order to earn a small prize. This encouraged frequent interaction between character actors and patrons, and the activity was a huge success, especially with the kinderfolk who attend. The scavenger hunt was coupled with a “knight’s quest”, which asked patrons to find a noble from each house and resulted in a knighting ceremony, conducted by the royal champions from the Knights of Lord Talbot. Moreover, the Sheriff of Thornwood (played by Jennifer MacLean), gave out citations through the day to fairgoers for various offenses and Lord John Faustoff (Frank Walker) held a baronial court to deal out justice for crimes cited by the Sheriff, which might sometimes involve a short stay in the stockades.

Viking Jarl (Jason Sumrall) takes the Sheriff of Thornwood (Jennifer McLean) into custody at Enchanted Orchard Renaissance Faire, 2024.

As with Wyndonshire, the Green Sash Viking marauders raided Orchard Toward, while the Mt. Witchusetts Witches made secret bargains and brewed magic potions for a number of the Enchanted Orchard nobles, ending with a flash mob dance that led patrons to the final event at the faire, the community Maypole dance which brought performers, cast members and patrons together for a final celebration of spring and the planting season.

May Pole Dance and celebration at the inaugural Enchanted Orchard Renaissance Faire, 2024.

Some of the theatrical performance groups were familiar from Wyndonshire: such as the Harlot Queens, Phoenix swords, the Warlock Wondershow and LaLoopna Hoops. Many musical groups were at both faires as well, namely Meraki Caravan, the Shank Painters, XPresso and Dead Gods are the New Gods. However, there were some new faces at Enchanted Orchard as well, such as Skeleton Crew Theater [giant troll-puppets], Diva Di [Shakespeare drag artist], HEMA [historical European combat] and solo fire performers such as Samantha Lynne and Luna Faun. This year we welcomed some additional performing groups, including the Iconic Darin’ Divas [featuring Diva Di and other drag artists], Winds of Alluria [musical group], Mike OJ [magician], Finlay’s Fire Troupe [fire-spinning show], and Captain Tackless [tavern musician], Dume & Glume [improv comedy show], Misfits of Avalon [musical group], Bayt Al-Asad: House of the Lion [medieval Middle Eastern combat], and Combatant’s Keep [medieval joust show].

Skeleton Crew Theater’s trolls wander through the Enchanted Orchard Renaissance Faire. Image by Kit Catlett (May 4th, 2024).

The Orchard King made his surprise wedding between his daughter, the Blueberry Princess, and the Prince of Leaves, the son of his rival, the May Queen, at the end of last year’s faire. Enchanted Orchard’s second annual event picks up where last year left off, and this year features “The Romance of the Orchard,” in which a love triangle blooms and whispers of revolution and news of the fall of Wyndonshire spreads to all of high and low estate. If you came last year to experience the magic of our inaugural faire, we hope that you return for more wonders and delights. If not, and you enjoy immersive storytelling and modern medievalism, we hope you join us this year for Enchanted Orchard Renaissance Faire 2025—which brings together the local performing art and farming communities in North Central Massachusetts—and combines theater, music, comedy, performance art, interactive activities, family fun and an artisan vendor market.

Master of Arms (Keith Fisher) at the Knights of Lord Talbot Camp during Enchanted Orchard Renaissance Faire. Image by Kit Catlett, May 4th, 2024.

Fairegoers will be able to learn how to sword fight, try their skill at axe-throwing, ride a unicorn or catch a goblin hayride, watch a joust and medieval melee combat in both European and Middle Eastern traditions. This year, Enchanted Orchard will commence on the first weekend in May, so consider saving the date, and I hope to see you there—just look for the wandering wizard! 

Richard Fahey
PhD in English
Medieval Institute
University of Notre Dame

Creative & Theatrical Director
FaeGuild Wonders

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Crafting a New Kind of Renaissance Faire: Theatrical Medievalism and the Aesthetic of Wonder

I am always looking for my next adventure, and so this past year I took a risk and wandered into new territory. Through creative partnership with my wife, Rajuli Fahey, and the many folks involved in what became FaeGuild Wonders, we together built not one but two inaugural Renaissances Faires in Massachusetts. Rajuli served as Art & Entertainment Director, and Stage Manager (and one of the Vending Coordinators at the latter faire), I served as Creative & Theatrical Director, Playwright and Academic Consultant for both Wyndonshire Renaissance Faire at the Community Park in our resident town of Winchendon, MA and Enchanted Orchard Renaissance Faire at Red Apple Farm just down the road in nearby Phillipston, MA.

Witnessing the Maypole Dance at Enchanted Orchard: Orchard Wizard (Creative & Theatrical Director, Richard Fahey), Orchard Steward (Red Apple Farm Owner, Al Rose), Orchard Stewardess (Red Apple Farm Owner, Nancy Rose); Image by Richard Carter (May 4th, 2025).

Public medievalism has long been a professional interest and personal passion of mine, and although I enjoy scholarship and traditional ways of academically engaging with medieval history, literature and culture, I am also drawn to the fantastic and wondrous, to the creative and adaptive, and it has long been a personal dream to produce full-scale Renaissance Faire that takes medieval literature and the aesthetic of wonder as its creative direction. Indeed, during my PhD studies at the University of Notre Dame, I organized a small-scale theatrical production called Grendelkin, which featured innovative and avant-garde performances related to Beowulf, which brought together musical artists, professional dancers and early medieval English scholars.

The Rogue Council of Wyndonshire: Hooded Rogue (Mandalina Blake), Pirate Queen (Katharine Taylor), Robber Baroness (Micayla Sullivan), Master of Arms (Keith Fisher), Pirate Quartermaster (Jarod Tavares), Masked Bandit (Mitch Lang); In back: Captain of the Kingsguard (Richard Carter), Blue Duchess (Lori Evans), Baronsguard (Ben Becker); Image by Adam Blake (April 27th, 2024).

The project’s scope expanded well beyond anything I might have anticipated when I signed on to be a Member of a Planning Group in our small Town of Winchendon, agreeing to create characters and produce a script, storyline and lore for Park & Recreation Member Dawn Higgins’ RenFaire initiative. Of course, there were many challenges to overcome along the way, some from the nature of startup projects and some from the circumstances surrounding organizing two distinct faires with very different models and storylines, which debuted back-to-back weekends this spring. While my blog today is in part a celebration of both events, it will center primarily on the creative inspiration and direction that shape both Renfaires and the world-building aspects that allowed me to leverage my expertise and love of medieval literature, especially that which contains monstrous and wondrous elements, in my creative process.

Wyndonshire Fairy (Jodi Schoolcraft) & Wyndonshire Town Crier (Leanne Blake), Image by Kit Catlett (April 27th, 2024).

However, before we dive too deep into the creative process, a brief description of both faires is in order:

Wyndonshire Renaissance Faire

For this faire, Rajuli and I both volunteered our professional services in order to support our town, local community and the beautiful amphitheater at the Winchendon Community Park. As the project grew so did our roles in the production of Wyndonshire. What began as a modest endeavor bloomed into a full-blown production that welcomed and engaged the local art community. Although all of the characters are fictitious (some cocreated with the character actors themselves), I based the House names around prominent families from Winchendon (the Murdocks and Whitneys in particular), though there is no intended relationship (allegorical or otherwise) between the Wyndonshire nobles and said historical families. This year’s plotline centered around “The Wyndonshire Wedding” between the Blue Princess (played by Melony “Melegie” Lemony) and Green Prince (played by Drew Dias). The wedding is coupled with political intrigue and subterfuge, resulting in a contest for power between the Blue King (played by James Higgins), Green Queen (played by Tammy Dykstra) and Red Baron (played by Dave Fournier) and culminating in a peasant revolt featuring rogues, pirates and marauders led by the Robber Baroness (played by Micayla Sullivan), the Pirate Queen (played by Katharine Taylor) and the Viking Jarl (played by Jason Sumrall).

The Red Baron (Dave Fournier) and Blue King (James Higgins) of Wyndonshire; Image by Kit Catlett (April 27, 2024).

Enchanted Orchard Renaissance Faire

After Wyndonshire was underway, this faire was conceived in collaboration with a local farm and festival venue, Red Apple Farm, owned by Al and Nancy Rose, who were excited to cocreate an event such as this in order to advertise their growing business, provide interactive and experience-based agricultural awareness, bring tourism to the surrounding area and support both the regional economy and artist community. Enchanted Orchard Renaissance Faire features fictitious characters and storylines that are centered on sustainable farming practices and agrarian life which was the bedrock for the medieval world. The main conflict concerns a disagreement between the nobles as to whether or not to expand the orchard or preserve the forest, with the Orchard King (played by Paul Taft) and Blossom Baroness (played by Jen Knight) advocating for conservation and the May Queen (played by Tammy Dykstra) and Duke of Thorns (played by Dave Fournier) opposing and advocating for preservation, ending with an unexpected marriage proposal and announcement between the Prince of Leaves (Michael Barboza-McLean) and the Blueberry Princess (Melanie “Melegie” Lemony).

Enchanted Orchard Knights and Nobles: Prince of Leaves (Barboza-McLean), Green Knight (Quinne Richard), May Queen (Tammy Dykstra), Orchard King (Paul Taft), Blue Knight (Ayden Mel), Blueberry Princess (Melanie “Melegie” Lemony), Red Knight (Dan Towle), Duke of Thorns (Dave Fournier), Hand of the Duke (Devon Barker); Image by Kit Catlett (May 4th, 2024).

These events included performances by musical and theatrical groups such as The Knights of Lord Talbot, Meraki Caravan, The Phoenix Swords, The Shank Painters, The Harlot Queens, The Warlock Wondershow, The Misfits of Avalon, Diva Di, Dead Gods are the New Gods, The Green Sash, The Mt. Wichusett Witches, Skeleton Crew Theater, Massachusetts Historical Swordsmanship [HEMA], The Ditrani Brothers, Nagashri Dancers, PsyBEL, Our Dance Space and numerous solo performers.

Obviously, RenFaires are at their core fantasy. They do not reflect in any consistent or credible way the historical realities of the medieval or early modern period, and even those groups and projects that are purportedly more focused and committed to historical accuracy, such as the Society for Creative Anachronism [SCA] and Pennsic Wars, acknowledge the deep limitations of attempting to recreate a historical past in the present: it’s simply not possible.

Enchanted Orchard Pub Sing: Orchard King (Paul Taft), Hand of the Duke (Devon Barker), Viking Shieldmaiden (Sylvia Sandridge), Duke of Thorns (Dave Fournier), Orchard Wizard (Richard Fahey), Orchard Herald (Nikolaus Brauer-Chagnon), Pirate Queen (Katharine Taylor), Blossom Baroness (Jen Knight), Countess of the Rose (Dawn Higgins), Pirate Quartermaster (Jarod Tavares), Weird Sister (Siobhan Doherty), Wyndonshire Herald (Alex Deschenes), Blue Knight (Ayden Mel), Orchard Jester (Chelsey Patriss), Siren (Jessa Funa), Prince of Leaves (Michael Barboza-McLean), Orchard Enchantress (Rajuli Fahey), Blueberry Princess (Melanie “Melegie” Lemony); Image by Richard Carter (May 5th, 2025).

Although folk certainly do not (and cannot despite best efforts) actually travel back in time when attending a RenFaire, and many of the performance groups embed non-historical or fantastic elements, the desire to experience something historically adjacent, something medievalish, to invoke modern perceptions (and at times misconceptions) of premodern times, and to be immersed in a world of medievalism, has bloomed in recent years and will likely continue to grow. As a medievalist interested in the intersection between medieval studies and medievalism, my goal in cocreating and directing these RenFaires was never to recreate the historical past or attempt to conjure the authentic premodern world, but rather to evoke the experience and aesthetic of wonder that imbues so many of the works of medieval literature I love most and which dramatize the monstrous, the magical, the mysterious, miraculous and the uncanny. I asked myself and the Muses two essential questions: 1.) what would it be like to walk into a work of medieval literature? And, 2.) what would it be like to walk into a medievalesque fantasy world?

Princes of Wyndonshire: the Satyr Prince (Sasha Khetarpal-Vasser) and the Green Prince (Drew Dias); Image by Mitch Grosky (April 27th, 2024).

I knew I wanted the experience to be highly immersive. I wanted folks attending to feel part of something—to have almost crossed into a fairyworld or an uncanny realm. I wanted the experience to be overwhelming, with too much to possibly see or do. I wanted to create the illusion of entering a world that is alive with everything from town gossip to its own historiography and mythography. Most of all, I wanted the patrons to experience the wonder that is embedded throughout medieval literature and that makes medievalism such a joy to modern audiences. I decided to include both stage performances and many immersive skits, as well as multiple interlacing subplots that come together at various points throughout the events.

Wyndonshire Rogues and the Green Sash Marauders: Masked Bandit (Mitch Lang), Robber Baroness (Micayla Sullivan), Pirate Quartermaster (Jarod Tavares), Viking Jarl (Jason Sumrall), Viking Warrior (Jeffery Allen Evans), Viking Berserker (Andrew Hamel) & Wyndonshire patrons; Image by Richard Fahey (April 28th, 2024).

In the end, both faires were a wicked good time and proved to be huge successes—for the town and for the farm—and from these experiences a community formed into a sort of immersive theater company, FaeGuild Wonders. Because of our unique approach to these Renaissance Faires, the immersive and theatrical dramatizations in particular, and the inclusive spirit of community present at these events, we received some local press leading up to and after their debuts. But the best part of the entire process for me, personally, was not even seeing my vision come to life—it was the community building and getting to collaborate with my friends and family.

Captain of the Kingsguard (Richard Carter), Wizard of Wyndonshire (Richard Fahey), Kingsguard (Kellie Carter); in back: Blue King (James Higgins); Image by patron for Richard Carter (April 27th, 2024).

I could talk about each event in detail, exploring the ways I engage the medieval aesthetic of wonder as well as the modern imaginary, but those will likely be the substance of future blogs on Wyndonshire and Enchanted Orchard. Most exciting of all for me to share is a brand-new event that Rajuli and I are planning and directing this winter, again in collaboration with the Red Apple Farm team led by the Roses (because they were such awesome partners): the Northfolk Nightmarket on February 22nd and 23rd 2025. This will offer me the incredible opportunity to dramatize the story of Beowulf, the subject of my dissertation and the majority of my scholarship, and interweave the story into an inaugural event which will draw inspiration directly from medieval lore, literature, myth and legend. Perhaps we’ll see you there?

Richard Fahey, PhD in English
Medieval Institute
University of Notre Dame

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The Material Gospel Conference: A Brief Overview

What do Gospel books have in common with collections of medical recipes? What do practices of erasure and destruction tell us about early Christian identity? Can we tell biographies of books?

Early Christians materialized Gospel literature in diverse formats and technologies. As material objects, these instantiations of “the Gospel” participated in ritual, political, economic, and readerly contexts. Gospel books were powerful. Augustine of Hippo complains that his audiences put Gospel books under their pillows to cure toothache. Amulets attest that even short excerpts enabled users to access the protective power of the material Gospel. The Gospel codex sometimes represented Christian identity, as Gospel books were processed in liturgy and imposed on the shoulders of ordinands. In times of persecution, Gospel books might even be subject to public execution in place of Christ himself. Yet Gospel books might also be erased or destroyed for apparently more mundane reasons, as various kinds of recycling attest. As an anthological object, the multiple-Gospel codex contributed to the development of a fourfold canonical Gospel. Early Christian readers developed novel strategies to facilitate knowledge, navigation, and use of Gospel literature. In each of these contexts, the materiality of Gospel literature plays a decisive role.

To address this theme, David Lincicum and I organized a conference on The Material Gospel at Notre Dame on 31 May 2019. The conference was generously sponsored by the Medieval Institute, the Institute for the Study of the Liberal Arts, and the Department of Theology. It brought together a number of scholars of Gospel literature and material culture to discuss the Gospel as a material object in the early Christian centuries. The day-long conference involved six papers and extended discussion between speakers and audience members.

To begin the day, Clare Rothschild (Lewis University) offered a paper on “Galen’s De indolentia and the Early Christian Codex.” The codex, a book format with pages and covers, quickly became a marker of Christian practices — to such an extent that scholars have suggested that the codex format became a marker of Christian identity, perhaps even chosen because of its visual distinctiveness. Rothschild intervenes in this conversation, emphasizing that the early Christian preference for a codex format was not only about visual distinctiveness or the perceived value of the texts, but also about the utility of the codex format. Comparison with the second-century physician Galen (129–ca. 216 CE) offers one window into second-century use of the codex. Rothschild offers a close reading of a passage where Galen describes the loss of parchment codices with medical recipes and of his own medical treatises. Similar genres appear in both formats. Galen describes the codices of recipes as having enormous intellectual and pecuniary value, but one of his own treatises, written on a scroll, was even more precious. But if the codex format was neither a bibliographic marker of genre or an indication of value, then why might Galen have used it? And why might Christians have adopted this technology? Rothschild argues that the codex affords durability, accessibility, expandability, and portability. These practical possibilities make it appropriate and convenient for Galen’s collections of medical recipes. Similarly, the codex format is practical for early Christian practices of study, liturgy, and travel in ways that exceed the possibilities of the bookroll. Conversations about the early Christian adoption of the codex for Gospels and other texts must, therefore, attend to the utility of the codex.

In a paper on “Navigating the Gospel: Nonlinear Access and Practical Use,” Jeremiah Coogan (Notre Dame) expands the conversation about the materiality of early Christian Gospel reading beyond the issue of codex format. Coogan argues that technologies for finding, dividing, and referencing illuminate late ancient Gospel reading, revealing how readers use Gospel books as objects. Coogan compares the modes of access invited by Gospel books with other practical texts in classical and late antiquity. Gospel books share visual features and practical affordances of access with recipe collections (like Galen’s or Scribonius Largus’), ritual (“magical”) anthologies (like PGM IV), and agricultural handbooks (like that of Columella). Paratextual interventions facilitate and expect Gospel access in various nonlinear ways — for liturgy, for divination, for moral instruction, for study. The late ancient Gospel book as an object frequently functions more like a recipe book than a linear text (such as the Iliad). Here, as in Rothschild’s paper, the focus is on the modes of use to which Gospel books as objects are suited. At the same time, the conversation must move beyond the codex as such, since Gospel books participate in material and paratextual conventions that facilitate access but that are not native to the codex. Coogan offers enlarged frames of comparison for the physicality and use of late ancient Gospel books.

Practices of reading and access are embedded in larger discourses. In his paper on “The Gospel Read, Sliced, and Burned: The Material Gospel and the Construction of Christian Identity,” Chris Keith (St. Mary’s Twickenham) argues that the use of the Gospel as a material object becomes part of early Christian identity. Drawing on the work of anthropologist Jan Assman , Keith argues that the early Christian book functioned as a material locus of memory and tradition. Far from being secondary or peripheral, textual objects become part of the visualization of literary memory. Practices of Gospel reading shape Christian understandings of the Gospel book as object. Christians read Gospel books in ways that are strikingly similar to how Jewish communities read Scriptures. However, there is a conceptual replacement of Torah with “Gospel” in (some) early Christian reading practices. Through practices of public reading, the book becomes a cult object. As a result, early Christians think in decidedly literal (and yet metaphorical) terms about textual change. Early Christians imagined Marcion of Sinope’s textual editing as gnawing, slicing amputation. Textual change is construed as an assault upon physical objects themselves. Finally, the centrality of the Christian book as object becomes a key issue in persecution under the Emperor Diocletian in the early fourth century. In seeking to destroy the Christian book, Rome attests its central significance as material object. For Eusebius, to destroy either churches or material texts is an attack upon Christianity. The construction of Christian identity is about what one does with the material Gospel.

Practices of book destruction, however, are not always violent or polemical. In her paper on “Erasing the Gospels: Insights from the Sinai Syriac Gospel Palimpsest,” Angela Zautcke (Notre Dame) analyzes the palimpsesting (erasing and rewriting) of late ancient Gospel books. Focusing on Syriac manuscripts, especially those held at St Catherine’s Monastery (Sinai, Egypt) and the British Library (many also from Sinai). Zautcke focuses on the potential role of erasure as intentional destruction, and concludes that there is no evidence to suggest that obsolete textual traditions like the Old Syriac Gospels were more likely to be palimpsested than other kinds of texts. Rather, parchment Gospel books often circulated for some four centuries before being recycled for other texts. The preponderance of palimpsested texts in the extant monastery collections have various scriptural texts (not always Gospels) as the undertext, reflecting the predominance of these texts in the existing collections available for palimpsesting. Zautcke demonstrates the need for further study of palimpsesting in material and social histories of early Christian texts, but concludes that the destruction of Gospel books by erasure is part of the life- cycle of the Gospel as object. The medium often continues past the text itself.

Returning to the issues of codex and roll, Sofía Torallas Tovar (University of Chicago) discussed the opposite case in a paper on “Resisting the Codex: Christian Rolls in Late Antiquity.” While modern scholarly imaginations associate early Christian book culture with the emergence of the codex, Torallas Tovar demonstrates that scrolls continue to function in a range of contexts. While the codex becomes a standard format for some kinds of Christian literature, the media ecology of Christian texts also includes the continued use of scrolls — for episcopal letters, for texts like Didache and Jubilees, and for day-to-day letters and documents. Both the codex and the roll belong in a wider landscape of late ancient Christian material texts.

Finally, Matthew Larsen (Princeton) offered a paper on “Codex Bobiensis: A Real-and-Imagined Biography of One Gospel Manuscript.” Applying a model of “real-and-imagined” history from the work of Heather Blair, Larsen narrated the biography of the Latin Gospel manuscript known as Codex Bobiensis (Turin National University Library, G.VII.15), from its production in Roman North Africa to its current dismembered state in Turin. This manuscript offers an unusual — and often ignored — Gospel text and an even more unusual hybridized epitomized form, combining Mark and Matthew. It takes its common name from Bobbio Abbey, where it was preserved in part because of a remembered association with the Irish missionary Columbanus (ca. 540–615 CE). The story of this object ends (for now) in Turin, where the manuscript exists as a collection of dismounted folios. Larsen’s paper offers new lenses with which to examine the continued and changing materiality of Gospel texts as objects.

Jeremiah Coogan, PhD Candidate
University of Notre Dame