The Wyndonshire Wedding: Theatrical and Community Medievalism

In my recent blog discussing a new form of theatrical medievalism in which I have become immersed—allowing me both a creative and intellectual outlet—I centered my discussion on my creative direction and process and how my studies in medieval literature informed my directive style at two local Renaissance Faires in North Central Massachusetts which I was involved with managing, organizing and directing, Wyndonshire Renaissance Faire at the Community Park in Winchendon, MA and Enchanted Orchard Renaissance Faire at Red Apple Farm in Phillipston, MA. Wyndonshire, the first of these faires, will be the center of my discussion today as I explore the way this project engaged local performers, vendors and community members who came together to cocreate an event that revitalized the town and region. It was also a lot of fun, especially when it all came together on the final weekend in April last year.

Crimson Countess (Dawn Higgins), Wizard of Wyndonshire (Richard Fahey), and Sir Joan (Kellie Carter); Image by Richard Carter (April 28, 2024).

Wyndonshire began with an idea proposed by Parks and Recreation Member Dawn Higgins, who championed the initiative and served as RenFaire Coordinator this past year, helping coordinate costume clinics for character actors with Costume Coordinator, Ashley Rust, and vendors with then Park and Recreation Coordinator, Tiffany Newton. My wife, Rajuli Fahey, and I joined on as community members and part of the Planning Group for Winchendon’s RenFaire initiative, but came to wear many hats and serve in numerous roles, including as Creative, Theatrical and Entertainment Directors. Well before directing and academic consulting, I began with world-building a fantasy kingdom, drawing inspiration from town history, and applying my knowledge of medieval culture and lore to imbue the scripts I created as Wyndonshire Playwright. I drew also from my studies and love of medievalism in considering the audience and to both appeal to and surprise patrons. And, as mentioned in my previous blog, I modeled my approach in part on the aesthetic of wonder operative in many of my favorite works of medieval literature.

Green Queen of Wyndonshire (Tammy Dykstra); Image by Kit Catlett (April 27, 2024).

Creating the characters was a blast. I conceived of three main houses, and three primary nobles vying for power: the Blue King (James Higgins), the Green Queen (Tammy Dykstra), and the Red Baron (Dave Fournier). Rajuli created the graphic art for Wyndonshire, and she suggested noble family’s crest included a local animal as a sigil, so we chose the stag for the king, the otter for the queen and the fox for the baron. I also created a host of characters to populate the kingdom: townsfolk, rogues, pirates, vikings, knights, ministers, and additional nobility. There are also wondrous creatures from literature, myth and legend: fairies, merfolk, witches and sirens. Of course, this conglomerate of fictitious characters borrows from medieval and modern traditions, and reaches into the realm of the imaginary. Wyndonshire can only be described as a historical and literary anachronism and amalgamation. In this way, this faire is full fantasy, designed to appeal broadly to audiences interested in premodern and early modern times or their perception of those earlier historical periods. In other words, designed to meet the expectations of those who would typically attend a modern Renaissance Faire.

Wyndonshire cast: Pirate Queen (Katharine Taylor), Robber Baroness (Micayla Sullivan), Blue King (James Higgins), Crimson Countess (Dawn Higgins), Masked Bandit (Mitch Lang), Hooded Rogue (Mandalina Blake), Captain of the Kingsguard (Richard Carter), Fay Rogue (Noodle Doodle), Pirate Quartermaster (Jarod Tavares), Blue Champion (David Geary), Blue Duke (Bill Evans), Blue Duchess (Lori Evans), Kingsguard (Kellie Carter), Herald (Alex Deschenes), Red Champion (Cameron Hardy), Wizard (Richard Fahey), Enchantress (Rajuli Fahey), Sheriff of Shirewood (Jennifer MacLean), Queensguard (Nikolaus Brauer-Chagnon), Jester (Chelsey Patriss), Kingsguard (Ayden Mel), Blue Princess (Melanie “Melegie” Lemony), Baronsguard (Dan Towle), Baron’s Hand (Devon Barker), Fairy Prince (Sasha Khetarpal-Vasser), Red Baron (Dave Fournier), Red Duke (Michael Bearce), Siren (Jessa Funa); Image by Keith Fisher (April 28, 2024).

It was at this point that magic truly began happening, and it came from the local community. At our auditions, the synergy was palpable—dozens of folks came out to try and embody one of my characters or contribute their creative touch to this growing community project. There were people from different backgrounds coming together to cocreate immersive theater—some folks were part of community theater productions, others were veteran “Rennies” and even Dungeons & Dragons roleplaying groups got involved. Everyone rose up and became a creative team. One example of many was the work of Tammy Dykstra, who was cast as the Green Queen, and later stepped into the role of Music Director, taking on a group of singers, with a spectrum of training and experience. Assisted by Planning Group member, Jacque Ellis, Tammy and the Wyndonshire Singers produced a masterful “pub sing” that was engaging for both spectators and participants, and provided some ribaldry, entertainment and comic relief against a plot that was otherwise often grim and tragic.

Wyndonshire Pub Sing: Pirate Boatswain (Merill Blake), Fairy (Jodi Schoolcraft), Weird Sister (Siobhan Doherty), Pirate Quartermaster (Jarod Tavares), Green Duchess (Jen Knight), Baron’s Hand (Devon Barker), Herald (Alex Deschenes), Jester (Chelsey Patriss), Enchantress (Rajuli Fahey), Town Crier (Leanne Blake) & Shieldmaiden (Sylvia Sandridge); Image by Richard Carter (April 28, 2024).

Wyndonshire Renaissance Faire also featured a Belly Dance showcase that paid homage to the evolution of American Belly Dance and American Renaissance Faires, organized through partnership between Rajuli, Rachel Moirae of Our Dance Space, and Cheryl Kalilia of PsyBEL. The showcase featured regional dancers with a variety of styles—some improvisational, some choreographed—all performing to music with live percussion accompaniment added by spectating dancers, performers and patrons, which highlighted the collaborative and community spirit of the faire. From there, Wyndonshire spiraled outward, as performers and vendors were reaching out looking to get involved in the expanding project.

Rajuli Fahey and Nagashri Dancers (including: Lauren Conrad, Kerri Plouffe, Destiny Young, Leah Cameron, and Erin Berndt), performing at Wyndonshire Renaissance Faire; Image by Chris Young (April 27, 2024).

Numerous performance, historical reenactment, theatrical and musical groups donated services, sometimes for free and more often at discounted rates, to help get this event off the ground since initial funding was limited and in large part came from Massachusetts Cultural Council grants. Everyone pitched in to make the event possible, including  The Knights of Lord TalbotMeraki CaravanThe Phoenix Swords, The Shank PaintersThe Harlot QueensThe Warlock WondershowThe Misfits of Avalon, Dead Gods are the New Gods, The Green Sash, The Mt. Wichusett Witches, and solo performers, such as stilts walker, LaLoopna Hoops, and fire dancer, Noodle Doodle.

Screenshot

Signage was of course an essential element of the faire as well, both because signs add to the atmosphere and create the physical space, and because they helpfully direct patrons where to go. Another community member, Micayla Sullivan, who also played the Robber Baroness, took the lead on this and other crucial aspect of stagecraft as our “Sign Smith” along with a handful of other character actors. All the raw wood for the signs was donated from a local lumber company, Killay Timber Company in Royalston, MA, which made the production of Wyndonshire signage possible even without a budget. Similarly, local company, French Family Foundation in Winchendon, MA, donated lumber from local hardware store, Belletetes, to create the Wyndonshire gate, which James Higgins (who played the Blue King) and Dawn Higgins constructed for the event. Furthermore, local recording studio Blu3Kat Records volunteered to support the event’s sound management, and members from the local artist collective, Eldwood Council (especially Jacob Bohlen and Tom Fahey), partnered with FaeGuild Wonders, in order to create and build second main stage, the Mirage Stage, at Wyndonshire Renaissance Faire.

Wyndonshire Gate, sign by Micayla Sullivan; Image by Richard Fahey (April 28, 2024).

As performers and vendors were signing up to be part of the Wyndonshire, characters deepened and developed alongside and in tandem with my scripting. The first act of this faire, which will run one more year (June 21-22, 2025), involves conflict between the Blue King and the Green Queen for sway over the realm of Wyndonshire, with the Red Baron biding his time and waiting for any opportunity to climb into greater power. To avoid open war, in an attempt at “peace-weaving” if you will, the Blue King offers his daughter’s hand in marriage to the Green Queen’s son, thereby uniting the realm and settling the question of authority. Of course, each noble is still plotting their opponent’s’ demise, as the game of thrones continues subversively, and breaks out at the wedding feast, resulting in usurpation and regicide.

Knight of Lord Talbot: Blue Champion (David Geary), Green Champion (Frank Walker), Master of Arms (Kieth Fisher) & Red Champion (Cameron Hardy); Image by Richard Fahey (April 28, 2024).

In order to achieve the action scene in a manner that was safe and professional, we called upon the expertise of Frank Walker (Green Champion) who embraced the role of Combat Coordinator and worked out the staged combat with his historical reenactment group, The Knights of Lord Talbot, and in particular David Geary (Blue Champion) and Cameron Hardy (Red Champion), who were also performing combat demonstrations and facilitating a tournament of champions with historical weaponry and armor earlier in the day. Needless to say, this dramatically enhanced the plot and overall theatrical delivery of the climactic scene, and highlights how it was not just the cast of character actors but also performing groups who were collaborating to produce the drama of the Wyndonshire Wedding.

Phoenix Swords perform their fire show at Wyndonshire Renaissance Faire; Image by Phoenix Swords, (April 27, 2024).

Some performing groups contained some scripted character actors that were part of the core cast. For example, the Mt. Wichusetts Witches came to Wyndonshire and set the stage for the carnage, and instrumental in twisting fate and turning the wheel of fortune. They contributed to the physical space by creating the Witches’ Den on the borders of the Faywood, where desperate Wyndonshire nobility come to make illicit pacts in service of their respective aims. The Mt. Wichusetts Witches, especially Wyndonshire’s Weird Sisters (Kate Saab, Chrissy Brady and Siobhan Doherty), who engaged in multiple immersive skits where they made magical bargains with representatives of the noble houses, culminating in a flash mob spell at the royal wedding that allowed the Green Prince (Drew Dias) to escape with the Fairy Prince (Sasha Khetarpal-Vasser) and the Blue Princess (Melanie “Melegie” Lemony) with the Siren (Jessa Funa), before smoke clears and the subsequent chaos erupts.

Weird Sisters of Wyndonshire: Trimmer (Kate Saab), Weaver (Chrissy Brady) & Spinner (Siobhan Doherty); Image by Richard Fahey (April 28, 2024).

But the regicide was not the end of the action. After the Green Queen seems to have consolidated power and claims unilateral victory, there is another surprise in store: a peasants revolt instigated by a rogue rebellion, overlooked by the Sheriff of Shirewood (Jennifer MacLean) and led by the Robber Baroness (Micayla Sullivan) with the Hooded Rogue (Mitch Lang), Masked Bandit (Mandaline Blake), the Pirate Queen (Katharine Taylor) with her Pirate Quartermaster [Jarod Tavares] and the Green Sash, led by Viking Jarl (Jason Sumrall) with his Berserker (Andrew Hamel), Shieldmaidens (Sylvia Sandridge, Sara Hulseberg, Ashley Sumrall & Gabrielle Emond) and Thanes (Gary Joiner, Daniel Berry, Jeffery Allen Evans, Matthew LeBlanc, Henry Peihong Tsai, Gavin Leo, Richard Sprusanky, Joshua Coffin, et al.).

Wizard of Wyndonshire (Richard Fahey) leads a Viking Raid on Wyndonshire Town: Shieldmaiden (Sylvia Sandridge), Green Sash Thanes (Henry Peihong Tsai, Gary Joiner & Richard Sprusanky followed by others); Image by Adam Blake (April 27, 2024).

Indeed, The Green Sash, a “live history” and historical reenactment group (organized by Jason Sumrall) built and became our Viking settlement at the RenFaire. This group not only helped build the world of Wyndonshire, but like The Knights of Lord Talbot and Mt. Wichusetts Witches, The Green Sash became an integral part of the plot and interwoven into the story, contributing numerous immersive theatrical skits throughout the event, including singing and raiding Wyndonshire Town with the Wizard, conspiring with rogues and pirates to overthrow the nobility, and ultimately aiding the people’s revolution at the conclusion of the faire.

Wyndonshire Peasant Revolt overthrowing the Green Queen (Tammy Dykstra); Image by Richard Fahey (April 27, 2024).

Another interwoven subplot at Wyndonshire involved the misadventures of the Fairy Court in the Faywood, which was primarily organized by Amy Boscho in partnership with Emilie Davis and many others. Amy is a local business owner and community member who was also part of the Planning Group for the faire, and she both directed the immersive theatrics surrounding the Fairy Court and coordinated the vendors at the Fay Marketplace in the Fairy Grove near Wyndonshire Gate. Moreover, to further develop the mythic elements near Faywood, professional mermaids, led by Tolkien scholar, Shae Rossi, adorned the shore of the nearby pond at the Winchendon Community Park.

Fairy Court in the Faywood of Wyndonshire: Amy Boscho, Jessica Mcmenamin, Sarai Sylvestri, Summer Skye, Emilie Davis, et al.; Image by Adam Blake (April 27, 2024).

By the end of the process, almost every character was cocreating at some level with the actor playing them, and in one case, one of the character actors, Jessa Funa, (who played the Siren character) even collaborated with me on an immersive subplot centered on fairy romance between herself and the Blue Princess. The sheer extent of community contributions to this event was truly incredible and has inspired me to interlace the storyline of Wyndonshire with its sister faire, so the two plots will interact and events at Wyndonshire will ultimately affect the fate of Enchanted Orchard. A project of this scope and magnitude takes a team—a village—and I am honored to be part of such a collaborative community, now FaeGuild Wonders, which was inspired to participate in a this exciting form of public medievalism.

Blue Princess (Melanie “Melegie” Lemony) & The Siren (Jessa); Image by Mitch Grosky (April 27, 2024).

Additionally, Park and Recreation Chair, Deb Bradley stepped up when the faire needed a liaison, and served as a stage manager during the event, a second representative from the Winchendon Park and Recreation Commission who played a critical role in the planning and operations of the faire. And, Red Apple Farm partnered in advertising the event and as one of the major food vendor, providing standard RenFaire snacks and specialty cider imported from the neighboring agrarian realm of Enchanted Orchard. In 2026, the plot for Wyndonshire progresses to Act 2, “The Reign of the Rogue Council” which picks up with the Green Queen in the Wyndonshire Dungeon, and the rogue leaders in power.  As we plan to run Act 1 “The Wyndonshire Wedding” again next year, if you missed out this spring, luckily there is still another chance to attend in 2025 (June 21-22nd).

Wyndonshire Crest depicting the sigils and colors of the three high nobles; Graphic Art by Rajuli Fahey (2024).

Richard Fahey
Ph.D. in English
Medieval Institute
University of Notre Dame

Creative, Entertainment & Theatrical Director
Playwright & Academic Consultant
Wyndonshire Renaissance Faire

Crafting a New Kind of Renaissance Faire: Theatrical Medievalism and the Aesthetic of Wonder

I am always looking for my next adventure, and so this past year I took a risk and wandered into new territory. Through creative partnership with my wife, Rajuli Fahey, and the many folks involved in what became FaeGuild Wonders, we together built not one but two inaugural Renaissances Faires in Massachusetts. Rajuli served as Art & Entertainment Director, and Stage Manager (and one of the Vending Coordinators at the latter faire), I served as Creative & Theatrical Director, Playwright and Academic Consultant for both Wyndonshire Renaissance Faire at the Community Park in our resident town of Winchendon, MA and Enchanted Orchard Renaissance Faire at Red Apple Farm just down the road in nearby Phillipston, MA.

Witnessing the Maypole Dance at Enchanted Orchard: Orchard Wizard (Creative & Theatrical Director, Richard Fahey), Orchard Steward (Red Apple Farm Owner, Al Rose), Orchard Stewardess (Red Apple Farm Owner, Nancy Rose); Image by Richard Carter (May 4th, 2025).

Public medievalism has long been a professional interest and personal passion of mine, and although I enjoy scholarship and traditional ways of academically engaging with medieval history, literature and culture, I am also drawn to the fantastic and wondrous, to the creative and adaptive, and it has long been a personal dream to produce full-scale Renaissance Faire that takes medieval literature and the aesthetic of wonder as its creative direction. Indeed, during my PhD studies at the University of Notre Dame, I organized a small-scale theatrical production called Grendelkin, which featured innovative and avant-garde performances related to Beowulf, which brought together musical artists, professional dancers and early medieval English scholars.

The Rogue Council of Wyndonshire: Hooded Rogue (Mandalina Blake), Pirate Queen (Katharine Taylor), Robber Baroness (Micayla Sullivan), Master of Arms (Keith Fisher), Pirate Quartermaster (Jarod Tavares), Masked Bandit (Mitch Lang); In back: Captain of the Kingsguard (Richard Carter), Blue Duchess (Lori Evans), Baronsguard (Ben Becker); Image by Adam Blake (April 27th, 2024).

The project’s scope expanded well beyond anything I might have anticipated when I signed on to be a Member of a Planning Group in our small Town of Winchendon, agreeing to create characters and produce a script, storyline and lore for Park & Recreation Member Dawn Higgins’ RenFaire initiative. Of course, there were many challenges to overcome along the way, some from the nature of startup projects and some from the circumstances surrounding organizing two distinct faires with very different models and storylines, which debuted back-to-back weekends this spring. While my blog today is in part a celebration of both events, it will center primarily on the creative inspiration and direction that shape both Renfaires and the world-building aspects that allowed me to leverage my expertise and love of medieval literature, especially that which contains monstrous and wondrous elements, in my creative process.

No photo description available.
Wyndonshire Fairy (Jodi Schoolcraft) & Wyndonshire Town Crier (Leanne Blake), Image by Kit Catlett (April 27th, 2024).

However, before we dive too deep into the creative process, a brief description of both faires is in order:

Wyndonshire Renaissance Faire

For this faire, Rajuli and I both volunteered our professional services in order to support our town, local community and the beautiful amphitheater at the Winchendon Community Park. As the project grew so did our roles in the production of Wyndonshire. What began as a modest endeavor bloomed into a full-blown production that welcomed and engaged the local art community. Although all of the characters are fictitious (some cocreated with the character actors themselves), I based the House names around prominent families from Winchendon (the Murdocks and Whitneys in particular), though there is no intended relationship (allegorical or otherwise) between the Wyndonshire nobles and said historical families. This year’s plotline centered around “The Wyndonshire Wedding” between the Blue Princess (played by Melony “Melegie” Lemony) and Green Prince (played by Drew Dias). The wedding is coupled with political intrigue and subterfuge, resulting in a contest for power between the Blue King (played by James Higgins), Green Queen (played by Tammy Dykstra) and Red Baron (played by Dave Fournier) and culminating in a peasant revolt featuring rogues, pirates and marauders led by the Robber Baroness (played by Micayla Sullivan), the Pirate Queen (played by Katharine Taylor) and the Viking Jarl (played by Jason Sumrall).

The Red Baron (Dave Fournier) and Blue King (James Higgins) of Wyndonshire; Image by Kit Catlett (April 27, 2024).

Enchanted Orchard Renaissance Faire

After Wyndonshire was underway, this faire was conceived in collaboration with a local farm and festival venue, Red Apple Farm, owned by Al and Nancy Rose, who were excited to cocreate an event such as this in order to advertise their growing business, provide interactive and experience-based agricultural awareness, bring tourism to the surrounding area and support both the regional economy and artist community. Enchanted Orchard Renaissance Faire features fictitious characters and storylines that are centered on sustainable farming practices and agrarian life which was the bedrock for the medieval world. The main conflict concerns a disagreement between the nobles as to whether or not to expand the orchard or preserve the forest, with the Orchard King (played by Paul Taft) and Blossom Baroness (played by Jen Knight) advocating for conservation and the May Queen (played by Tammy Dykstra) and Duke of Thorns (played by Dave Fournier) opposing and advocating for preservation, ending with an unexpected marriage proposal and announcement between the Prince of Leaves (Michael Barboza-McLean) and the Blueberry Princess (Melanie “Melegie” Lemony).

Enchanted Orchard Knights and Nobles: Prince of Leaves (Barboza-McLean), Green Knight (Quinne Richard), May Queen (Tammy Dykstra), Orchard King (Paul Taft), Blue Knight (Ayden Mel), Blueberry Princess (Melanie “Melegie” Lemony), Red Knight (Dan Towle), Duke of Thorns (Dave Fournier), Hand of the Duke (Devon Barker); Image by Kit Catlett (May 4th, 2024).

These events included performances by musical and theatrical groups such as The Knights of Lord Talbot, Meraki Caravan, The Phoenix Swords, The Shank Painters, The Harlot Queens, The Warlock Wondershow, The Misfits of Avalon, Diva Di, Dead Gods are the New Gods, The Green Sash, The Mt. Wichusett Witches, Skeleton Crew Theater, Massachusetts Historical Swordsmanship [HEMA], The Ditrani Brothers, Nagashri Dancers, PsyBEL, Our Dance Space and numerous solo performers.

Obviously, RenFaires are at their core fantasy. They do not reflect in any consistent or credible way the historical realities of the medieval or early modern period, and even those groups and projects that are purportedly more focused and committed to historical accuracy, such as the Society for Creative Anachronism [SCA] and Pennsic Wars, acknowledge the deep limitations of attempting to recreate a historical past in the present: it’s simply not possible.

Enchanted Orchard Pub Sing: Orchard King (Paul Taft), Hand of the Duke (Devon Barker), Viking Shieldmaiden (Sylvia Sandridge), Duke of Thorns (Dave Fournier), Orchard Wizard (Richard Fahey), Orchard Herald (Nikolaus Brauer-Chagnon), Pirate Queen (Katharine Taylor), Blossom Baroness (Jen Knight), Countess of the Rose (Dawn Higgins), Pirate Quartermaster (Jarod Tavares), Weird Sister (Siobhan Doherty), Wyndonshire Herald (Alex Deschenes), Blue Knight (Ayden Mel), Orchard Jester (Chelsey Patriss), Siren (Jessa Funa), Prince of Leaves (Michael Barboza-McLean), Orchard Enchantress (Rajuli Fahey), Blueberry Princess (Melanie “Melegie” Lemony); Image by Richard Carter (May 5th, 2025).

Although folk certainly do not (and cannot despite best efforts) actually travel back in time when attending a RenFaire, and many of the performance groups embed non-historical or fantastic elements, the desire to experience something historically adjacent, something medievalish, to invoke modern perceptions (and at times misconceptions) of premodern times, and to be immersed in a world of medievalism, has bloomed in recent years and will likely continue to grow. As a medievalist interested in the intersection between medieval studies and medievalism, my goal in cocreating and directing these RenFaires was never to recreate the historical past or attempt to conjure the authentic premodern world, but rather to evoke the experience and aesthetic of wonder that imbues so many of the works of medieval literature I love most and which dramatize the monstrous, the magical, the mysterious, miraculous and the uncanny. I asked myself and the Muses two essential questions: 1.) what would it be like to walk into a work of medieval literature? And, 2.) what would it be like to walk into a medievalesque fantasy world?

Princes of Wyndonshire: the Satyr Prince (Sasha Khetarpal-Vasser) and the Green Prince (Drew Dias); Image by Mitch Grosky (April 27th, 2024).

I knew I wanted the experience to be highly immersive. I wanted folks attending to feel part of something—to have almost crossed into a fairyworld or an uncanny realm. I wanted the experience to be overwhelming, with too much to possibly see or do. I wanted to create the illusion of entering a world that is alive with everything from town gossip to its own historiography and mythography. Most of all, I wanted the patrons to experience the wonder that is embedded throughout medieval literature and that makes medievalism such a joy to modern audiences. I decided to include both stage performances and many immersive skits, as well as multiple interlacing subplots that come together at various points throughout the events.

Wyndonshire Rogues and the Green Sash Marauders: Masked Bandit (Mitch Lang), Robber Baroness (Micayla Sullivan), Pirate Quartermaster (Jarod Tavares), Viking Jarl (Jason Sumrall), Viking Warrior (Jeffery Allen Evans), Viking Berserker (Andrew Hamel) & Wyndonshire patrons; Image by Richard Fahey (April 28th, 2024).

In the end, both faires were a wicked good time and proved to be huge successes—for the town and for the farm—and from these experiences a community formed into a sort of immersive theater company, FaeGuild Wonders. Because of our unique approach to these Renaissance Faires, the immersive and theatrical dramatizations in particular, and the inclusive spirit of community present at these events, we received some local press leading up to and after their debuts. But the best part of the entire process for me, personally, was not even seeing my vision come to life—it was the community building and getting to collaborate with my friends and family.

Captain of the Kingsguard (Richard Carter), Wizard of Wyndonshire (Richard Fahey), Kingsguard (Kellie Carter); in back: Blue King (James Higgins); Image by patron for Richard Carter (April 27th, 2024).

I could talk about each event in detail, exploring the ways I engage the medieval aesthetic of wonder as well as the modern imaginary, but those will likely be the substance of future blogs on Wyndonshire and Enchanted Orchard. Most exciting of all for me to share is a brand-new event that Rajuli and I are planning and directing this winter, again in collaboration with the Red Apple Farm team led by the Roses (because they were such awesome partners): the Northfolk Nightmarket on February 22nd and 23rd 2025. This will offer me the incredible opportunity to dramatize the story of Beowulf, the subject of my dissertation and the majority of my scholarship, and interweave the story into an inaugural event which will draw inspiration directly from medieval lore, literature, myth and legend. Perhaps we’ll see you there?

Richard Fahey, PhD in English
Medieval Institute
University of Notre Dame

Longfellow’s Christianizing Rhetoric: ‘Preached the Gospel with His Sword’

Henry ​​Longfellow’s “Musician’s Tale: The Saga of King Olaf” from his Tales of the Wayside Inn appears on the surface to be little more than a retelling and versification of the Old Norse-Icelandic saga Heimskringla which includes accounts of King Olaf Tryggvason. Of course, in the process, Longfellow adapts the medieval story honoring converter-king Olaf Tryggvason in his modern English translation suited for American audiences and his poem is mediated through Samuel Laing’s translation which Longfellow used as a model. Situating the poem in its the historical context, I would argue, highlights some of the rhetorical implications surrounding early American works of medievalism, such as Longfellow’s “The Saga of King Olaf.”

Miniature of Olaf Tryggvason in Flateyjarbók (1387).

Archaic diction, especially medieval English terms and compounds, adorn the epic poetic retelling of the saga, such as the line “Through weald, they say, and through wold,” which include two alliterating terms “weald” [a forest] and “wold” [a wooded hill], both deriving from the Old English word wold meaning “wilderness,” and this embeds archaism into the poem.

In the previous blog, I included the opening stanza of the epic poem, “The Challenge of Thor” which Olaf then answers:

“And King Olaf heard the cry,
Saw the red light in the sky,
  Laid his hand upon his sword,

There he stood as one who dreamed;
And the red light glanced and gleamed
  On the armor that he wore;
And he shouted, as the rifted
Streamers o’er him shook and shifted,
  “I accept thy challenge, Thor!”

This initiates the presentation of Olaf as a violent converter and warrior of Christ, which makes him an enemy of indigenous Scandinavian religion.

Religion continuously causes tension in the poem. When Queen Sigrid, whom Olaf pursues as his queen, refuses to convert to Christianity, he beats her in punishment, demonstrating again his use of violent conversion.

“A footstep was heard on the outer stair,
And in strode King Olaf with royal air.

He kissed the Queen’s hand, and he whispered of love,
And swore to be true as the stars are above.

But she smiled with contempt as she answered: “O King,
Will you swear it, as Odin once swore, on the ring?”

And the King: “O speak not of Odin to me,
The wife of King Olaf a Christian must be.”

Looking straight at the King, with her level brows,
She said, “I keep true to my faith and my vows.”

Then the face of King Olaf was darkened with gloom,
He rose in his anger and strode through the room.

“Why, then, should I care to have thee?” he said,–
“A faded old woman, a heathenish jade!

His zeal was stronger than fear or love,
And he struck the Queen in the face with his glove.“

This section, surely designed to demonstrate Olaf’s Christian zeal, reveals to Sigurd how abusive a husband he would be, and her decision not to wed him, while couched in fidelity to her indigenous beliefs, could have just as much to do with the violence he displays toward her as a result of her assertion of her voice and her commitment to her beliefs.

Olaf’s violence persists as he converts the pagans—frequently called warlocks and witches—but Longfellow seems to applaud the deliverance of his enemies for “thus the sorcerers were christened!”

Held up as validation of his conversionary conquests, Olaf finds the ghost of Odin, and proclaims the Allfather dead:

“King Olaf crossed himself and said:
“I know that Odin the Great is dead;
Sure is the triumph of our Faith,
The one-eyed stranger was his wraith.”

Longfellow’s narrative takes this a step further later in the poem,

“All the old gods are dead,
All the wild warlocks fled;
But the White Christ lives and reigns,
And throughout my wide domains
His Gospel shall be spread!”
On the Evangelists
Thus swore King Olaf. 

Olaf Tryggvason in the late fourteenth-century Icelandic manuscript Flateyjarbok (1387). This image has been sourced from Handrit.is.

When it comes to human sacrifice, Olaf threatens that if the pagan practice continues, then it will be the upper not the lower class offered as sacrifices to the gods, and in making this threat of violence against the aristocracy, convinces them to give up the practice.

“Such sacrifices shalt thou bring;
    To Odin and to Thor, O King,
As other kings have done in their devotion!”

    King Olaf answered: “I command
    This land to be a Christian land;
Here is my Bishop who the folk baptizes!

    “But if you ask me to restore
    Your sacrifices, stained with gore,
Then will I offer human sacrifices!

    “Not slaves and peasants shall they be,
    But men of note and high degree,
Such men as Orm of Lyra and Kar of Gryting!”

   Then to their Temple strode he in,
   And loud behind him heard the din
Of his men-at-arms and the peasants fiercely fighting.

    There in the Temple, carved in wood,
    The image of great Odin stood,
And other gods, with Thor supreme among them.

    King Olaf smote them with the blade
    Of his huge war-axe, gold inlaid,
And downward shattered to the pavement flung them.

    At the same moment rose without,
    From the contending crowd, a shout,
A mingled sound of triumph and of wailing.

    And there upon the trampled plain
    The farmer Iron-Beard lay slain,
Midway between the assailed and the assailing.

    King Olaf from the doorway spoke.
    “Choose ye between two things, my folk,
To be baptized or given up to slaughter!”

    And seeing their leader stark and dead,
    The people with a murmur said,
“O King, baptize us with thy holy water.” 

Even the notoriously unruly Thangbrand, described repeatedly as “Olaf’s Priest” and credited with Christianizing Iceland through violence, is praised for his efforts and paralleled with Olaf’s missionizing work:

All the prayers he knew by rote,
  He could preach like Chrysostome,
From the Fathers he could quote,
  He had even been at Rome,
    A learned clerk,
    A man of mark,
Was this Thangbrand, Olaf’s Priest.

He was quarrelsome and loud,
  And impatient of control,
Boisterous in the market crowd,
  Boisterous at the wassail-bowl,
    Everywhere
    Would drink and swear,
Swaggering Thangbrand, Olaf’s Priest

In his house this malcontent
  Could the King no longer bear,
So to Iceland he was sent
  To convert the heathen there,
    And away
    One summer day
Sailed this Thangbrand, Olaf’s Priest. 

Of course, when met with resistance from those still adhering to indigenous cultural practice, Thrangbrand resorts to violence, in accordance with his benefactor:

Hardly knowing what he did,
  Then he smote them might and main,
Thorvald Veile and Veterlid
  Lay there in the alehouse slain.
    “To-day we are gold,
    To-morrow mould!”
Muttered Thangbrand, Olaf’s Priest. 

Much in fear of axe and rope,
  Back to Norway sailed he then.
“O King Olaf! little hope
  Is there of these Iceland men!”
    Meekly said,
    With bending head,
Pious Thangbrand, Olaf’s Priest

The final line of this stanza is repeated twice in the poem, communicating the violent nature of Olaf’s mission and emphasizing the brutality associated with his Christianization of the indigenous cultural practice.

In their temples Thor and Odin
Lay in dust and ashes trodden,
As King Olaf, onward sweeping,
    Preached the Gospel with his sword

Miniature of Olaf Tryggvason in Flateyjarbók (1387).

The ethnonationalist overlay, as well as situating this saga retelling as a tale in colonial America, parallels the violent Christianization of indigenous peoples in North America, extending from the earliest colonial period to the ongoing American “Indian wars,” which the United States government was conducting, and which would not conclude until after the Civil War. “White Man’s Burden” justifications loomed large, and literature such as Longfellow’s “Musician’s Tale” support the continued Christianization and Westernization of indigenous cultures in the United States as around the globe to European colonial powers.

Although primarily revered as a scholar and poet, Longfellow was also an abolitionist who supported the anti-slavery movement in the mid-nineteenth century with both his art and his resources, and in 1842 write Poems on Slavery in an effort to draw attention to the inhumane cruelty of slavery, and he contributed financially to abolitionist organizations and individuals. Additionally, Longfellow was intrigued by indigenous peoples, and Longfellow’s most famous poem, The Song of Hiawatha, tells a fictionalized tale in part inspired by Ojibwe legend, but likely influenced by nationalistic epic projects, such as the Finnish Kalevala. Of course, Longfellow’s goal to include Anishinaabe legend in American literary canon could be viewed as inclusive in that it offers Anishinaabe peoples representation that might help preserve and celebrate their cultural heritage. However, Longfellow’s poem, perhaps unconsciously or subconsciously, reinforces harmful stereotypes and corroborates assimilation attempts by missionaries and government Indian agents to Anglicize indigenous people, which worked to erase cultural practices and identities.

Theatrical portrayal of Hiawatha proposing to Minnehaha, NPS Photo, Longfellow Family Photograph Collection, LONG Collections.

Longfellow’s interest in King Olaf I aligns him with other romantic antiquarians, but the rhetoric that emerges from a retelling of an Old-Norse Icelandic saga as a tale told in the cozy Wayside Inn in colonial Massachusetts creates an ethnonational link with medieval Europe and a religious model for conversion subjugation of indigenous peoples and belief systems by force and through an overt threat of violence. Since the advent of early modern European colonialization, efforts to Westernize indigenous people in North America were part of the same tradition of civilizing heathens through violent missionizing, just as certain early medieval Christianizing kings, such as Olaf I and Charlemagne, practiced conversion by the sword.

Longfellow articulates a melancholy nostalgia and romantic reverence for indigenous people, stating:

“As population advances westward, the plough-share turns up the wasted skeleton; and happy villages arise upon the sites of unknown burial-places. And when our native Indians, who are fast perishing from the earth, shall have left forever the borders of our wide lakes and rivers, and their villages have decayed within the bosom of our western hills, the dim light of tradition will rest upon those places, which have seen the glory of their battles, and heard the voice of heir eloquence;—and our land will become, indeed, a classic ground.”

However, the use of pronouns—us and them—demonstrates Longfellow’s view that the time for the indigenous is over as United States continues expanding west, an idea that remains toxic to the numerous, yet all-too-invisible, indigenous communities who resides in every state in the union.

Portrait of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Science History Images / Alamy Stock Photo.

Moreover, Longfellow’s medievalism participates in a broader social trend that serves to connect America with Europe through a shared historical and ethnonationalist identity. This rhetorical implication and paralleling create an historical allegory and provides the rationale for acts of genocide perpetrated by the American government and European colonists against indigenous peoples in North America, and the “New World” more broadly. It further reinforces as well, the New World—Old World rhetorical connection. Like many medieval theologians parallel the Old Testament with the New Testament, and at times use the Old Testament as a source of prophecy, Christianization of the indigenous Old World of the pagan North serves as a prophetic roadmap for Manifest Destiny and American westward expansion, which frequently employ violence and committed acts of genocide as a means of Christianizing and Westernizing indigenous peoples.

Richard Fahey, Ph.D.
Medieval Studies
University of Notre Dame